THE GREAT CHRONICLE OF BUDDHAS-1

THE GREAT CHRONICLE OF BUDDHAS

Buddhaṃ Saranaṃ gacchāmi
Dhammaṃ Saranaṃ gacchāmi
Saṃghan Saranām gacchāmi
Sabbadānam dhammadānaṃ jināti

I take refuge in the Buddha.
I take refuge in the Dhamma.
I take refuge in the Samgha.
The Gift Dhamma excels all gifts.

SYNOPSIS of Six Volumes, Eight Books of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas.
Volume One Part One: SUMEDHA the Future Buddha, His Renunciation, the Prophecy, Reflections on Perfections, elaborate expositions on Paramīs.
Volume One Part Two: Chronicle of Twenty four Buddhas: Dīpaṅkara Buddha to Kassapa Buddha; Future Gotama Buddha receiving Prophesy.
Volume Two: Beginning of Buddha Ratana: From Conception of the Bodhisatta to attainment of Buddhahood, and events during the 1st rains-retreat.
Volume Three: Events from the 2nd rains-retreat to the 9th.
Volume Four: Events from the 9th rains-retreat to the 20th.
Volume Five: Events from 21st rains-retreat to Parinibbāna of the Buddha. End of Buddha Ratana. One chapter on Dhamma Ratana.
Volume Six Part One: Saṃgha Ratana begins: Stories of Foremost Bhikkhus. Theras from the Venerable Sāriputta to the Venerable Mogharāja.
Volume Six Part Two: Saṃgha Ratana continues: Stories of Foremost Bhikkhunīs. Therīs from Mahāpajāpati Gotamī to Siṅgālakamātu. Stories of Foremost lay male disciples and lay female disciples. Epilogue.

Biography of U Ko Lay

Graduated form Yangon University in 1934, educated also at London University of UK, Cornell University and Columbia University, USA.
He founded the first Myanmar University after gainging Independence, at Mandalay, the old capital of Burma and became its first vice-chancellor. He retired from the university service in 1963 and devoted himself entirely to practice of vipassanā meditation and to translating Tipiṭaka Pāḷi Canon into English. He first translated the discourses given by the Venerable Mahāsi Sayadaw on Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and AnattalakkhaÓasutta in 1979. Next he served as senior Editor on the Editorial Committee of the Burma Piṭaka Association. The Association has published his book on the “Guide to Tipiṭaka” and four of his translations in “Ten Suttas from the Dīgha Nikāya”. His other translations from the Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya and the Vinaya Mahāvagga remain to be published in due course.
At present he is engaged in translationg into English the six volumes in eight books of The Great Chronicle of Buddhas in Myanmar which is based on the Pāḷi Text Buddhavaṃsa and written by The Most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa. He is also working as a guest professor at the State Pariyatti Sāsana University, Kaba Aye, Yagon.

Biography of U Tha Hla

Born in Minhla, Bago Division on Friday, 1 May 1925, as the only son of U Po Saw, Retired Superintendent of Land Records and Land Owner and Daw Than Tin.
He started his education at the Buddhist High School in Minhla in 1934 and passed the Anglo-Myanmar Tenth Standard Examination from the “A” List that qualified him to attend the University.
He obtained his MBBS Degree from the Yangon Medical College in 1954 and also the Post-graduate Diploma in Venerealogy and Dermatology from the Madras Medical Institute, India in 1957.
From 1957 to 1965, he worked as Head of the Department of Dermatology and Veneraelogy at the Mandalay General Hospital. From that time onwards he had been appointed by the successive Myanmar Governments personal physician to the late Tipitakadhara Sayadaw of Mingun.

In 1969, he worked as a specialist for Dermatology and Venerealogy at the Yangon General Hospital and also as Associate Professor at the Medical Institute of Yangon from which he retired in 1984.

In 1982, he earned the most respectable FDS from the St. John's Dermatology Institute, the Hospital for general skin diseases, London.

While serving in Mandalay, he gave free medical treatments to religious personnel, title-holding Sayadaws, homes of social services, homes for the aged poor, and government services, for this and his effective medical services in the fight against veneral disease, he was awarded the title of Wunna Kyaw-hin in 1962.

As assigned by the Mingun Sayadaw, he was undertaken till today the three main projects for the propagation of the Sāsana and managed all the charitable works of the Sayadaw. He has also organized the construction of the state Pariyatti Sāsana University under the State Sangha Mahā-Nayāka Council and has been obliged to hold the office of the Chairman of the construction committee.

He became Advisor to the Ministry of Religious Affairs in 1991 and served in that capacity for two years. In recognition of his religious contribution of such amazing proportions, the Government conferred on him the religious title of Mahā Sadhamma Jotikadhaja in 1992.

At present, U Tha Hla is supervising (1) the English translation of the Mahā-Buddhavaṃsa, “The Great Chronicle of Buddhas”, of six volumes in eight books; (2) the publication of the Mingun Sayadaw’s Lectures on the ten Major Jatakas and a series of talks on the Buddhist doctrines, and (3) the emergence of the Sayadaw’s historic biography.

Biography of U Tin Lwin

Born in Yangon towards the end of 1928, Tin Lwin was also brought up and educated in that Myanmar capital. He graduated from the University of Yangon in 1952 and got his M.A. in Pāḷi in 1954. During his four years private sojourn in UK from 1957, he wrote a Master thesis and submitted it to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London and came home in 1961. The following year he went again to London to sit for his written as well as oral examinations, and all this earned him the Master Degree in Indo-Aryan together with the B.C. Law Prize.

After his graduation in 1952, he served as a University teacher mainly at Yangon and Mandalay. From tutorship in Yangon in 1952, gradual promotions eventually led him to professorship in Mandalay in 1969. He came back to Yangon in 1986 and retired in 1989.

He was one time on the Committee of the Burma Research Society and a member of the Myanmar Language Commission, a governmental body.

At present, he is teaching as Part-time Professor at the Yangon University and also as Associate Head of the Pāḷi Department of the State Pariyati Sāsana University, Yangon.

Biography of U Tin Oo

U Tin Oo, the eldest son of U Ba and Daw Sein Pu, was born in 1923 at Myaung, Sagaing District. Educated at the Government High School, Sagaing; Mandalay Intermediate College, and Rangoon University, he earned the B.A. and B.L. Degrees and Diploma in Management and Administration and Diploma in Economic Planning.
He retired from public service and volunteered for the Piṭaka translation project launched by the Myanmar Piṭaka Association in 1981, first as a translator and later as an editor. In 1991 the MPA was voluntarily wound up and its Editorial Committee was incorporated in the Department for the Promotion and Propagation of the Sāsana (DPPS).
He was awarded the title of Mahā Saddhamma Jotikadhaja in 1998 by the state in recognition of his distinguished contribution to the cause of spreading the Buddha's Teaching.

TRANSLATORS’ PREFACE

Veneration to the Exalted One, the Homage-Worthy, the Perfectly Self-Enlightened

The project to translate into English the six volumes in eight books of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas which form the Myanma version of the Pāḷi Text ‘ Mahā Buddhavaṃsa ’ as prepared by the Most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa was initiated by the lay devotee Wunna Kyaw Htin Dr. Tha Hla, Associate professor of Dermatovenereology, and Senior Consultant Dermatovenereologist, General Hospital, Yangon, Chairman of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Sāsanā Organization. The task of translating and editing the great work into English was pressed on to us by the Chairman U Tha Hla in the month of May, 1989. Due to his earnest persistence we were obliged to accept this great assignment, knowing full well our shortcomings and in spite of other pressing responsibilities each of us has previously undertaken to accomplish.

The work entails not mere translation of Myanma words and sentences into readable current English. The Venerable author is one of the most learned personages in the whole of the Union of Myanmar on whom are bestowed the titles of Tipiṭakadhara ( Bearer of the Three Piṭakas ), Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika ( Keeper of the Dhamma Treasure ), Aggamahapaṇḍita ( Supremely learned One ), Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru ( The Noble Banner and Great Preceptor of the State ), all in honour and recognition of his great learning. The subject he writes about is of the Most Exalted, Homage-Worthy, Perfectly Self-Enlightened Buddhas, 25 in all, who had made their appearances throughout the various periods of the world cycles.

The venerable author’s eloquent and versatile pen has admirably adapted itself to the multifarious themes he deals with in his work - majestic words and phrases arousing faith, reverence, awe when describing noble personages; serious. wise, weighty words and phrases evoking religious thoughts and devotional fervour when describing deep, profound aspects of the doctrines; or a very ornate, florid style with ornamental words to describe the splendours of cities and palaces, or scenes of natural beauty such as the abodes of recluses at the foot of the Himalayas.

With the greatest of difficulty. we have endeavoured to reproduce in English not only the great Sayadaw’s narratives and expositions but also the style the language and the embellishments with which they are rendered. We have strived to produce a work of translation which, we hope, will not diminish the literary value of the original.

Although the author is making a Myanma translation of the Buddhavaṃsa of the Khuddaka Nikāya only, he has covered the whole of the Tipiṭaka and the vast field of Myanma language and literature in giving his elaborate expositions, well-considered views and interpretations on all aspects of Theravāda Buddhism.

In undertaking this difficult task, our sincere wish is to make available to foreign readers the vast treasure of Theravada Buddhism as traditionally understood, interpreted and taught by the continuous line of teachers from the time of its arrival in Myanma till the present day.

This book is the complete English version together with footnotes and comments of the first part of the first volume. This portion represents the main literary effort of the author of this volume. We hope to bring out soon the second portion which deals with elaborate explanations and enumerations of various doctrinal points which arise in the first portion, to be followed in succession by translated works of the remaining volumes.

With most respectful venerations, we make our obeisance to the Most Venerable Sayadaw, the author of the Six Volumes of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas on this auspicious day.

May the Venerable Sayadaw be blessed with long life and good health so that he may continue on rendering invaluable services for the welfare and happiness of all mankind.

U KO LAY AND U TIN LWIN

Yangon

Dated, The full-moon day of Tazaungmon, 1352 M.E.,

The 1 -st November, 1990

The Author

The author, Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa, Mingun Tipiṭakadhara Sayadaw, as he is popularly known, was borṅ in the village of Thaibyuwa on November 11,1911. At the age of eight he was sent to Sayadaw U Sobhita of Min-gyaung Monastery, Myingyan to start learning the rudiments of Buddhism. When he was ten he was ordained a sāmaṇera by the same Sayadaw. Ten years later he went to Dhammanāda Monastery, a secluded place of holy personages, in Mingun, Sagaing Township, for further learning. In 1930 he received higher ordination, his sponsors being Daw Dhammacārī, a prominent and learned nun of Mingun, the author of the Saccavādī-ṭīkā, and Sir U Thwin, a wealthy, philanthropist of Yangon. Since then Daw Dhammacārī had become his spiritual mother and Sir U Thwin his fatherly supporter for his religious life. In 1937 when the First Dhammanāda Sayadaw, his preceptor at his ordination, passed away, he had to take charge of the Monastery.

The Sayadaw has passed a series of religious examinations invariably with flying colours since the age of 13. To mention but a few, in his fourth year as a bhikkhu, he passed the Dhammācariya Examination held by the Pariyatti Sāsanahita Association of Mandalay, a formidable examination which only a few candidates dare to sit for. The Examination is on the three great Commentaries which candidates normally try to finish one by one in three years. But the author passed all three Commentaries in one year and acquired the rare and coveted title of Pariyatti Sāsanahita Dhammācariya Vaṭaṃsakā.

However, the first time he really made his name for himself as a man of vast learning was when he passed with distinctions the Tipiṭakadhara Examination, held for the first time and reputed to be the longest and most difficult one. As the name of the Examination suggests, the candidate has to recite all three Piṭakas that he had learned by heart. In addition, he has to pass the written papers on all the Canonical Texts and Commentaries. It took him four years to sit for the whole Examination that earned him in 1953 the unique title of Tipiṭakadhara Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika, which means “Bearer of the Three Piṭakas and Keeper of the Dhamma-Treasure.” The Sayadaw’s ability to recite 16,000 pages of Buddhist Canonical Texts has been recorded in the Guinness Book of Records 1985. ( Since the author’s achievement there have been only four other holders of the same title so far. )

As regards his work for the Sāsanā, suffice it to say that even before that great achievement of being Tipiṭakadhara Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika , when the Sixth Buddhist Council was well under way, the Sayadaw was assigned the task of editing the Canonical Texts to be approved by the Council as its version. Besides, when the Council was convened, the Sayadaw acted as the Visajjaka, that is, ‘ Respondent ’ answering questions on all three portions of the Canon. The Pucchaka, ‘ Questioner ’, was the late Mahāsī Sayadaw. In answering the questions, the author took the combined role of Thera Upāli and Thera Ānanda who answered the questions on the Vinaya and the Dhamma respectively at the First Council presided over by Thera Mahā Kassapa.

After the Council, the author devoted himself to literary pursuits. At the request of U Nu, the then Prime Minister of Myanmar, he assiduously compiled Mahā Buddhavaṃsa, being the Myanmar exposition on the lives of the Buddhas as related mainly in the Buddhavaṃsa Pāḷi Text of the Khuddaka Nikāya; the compilation, resulting in six volumes in eight books, commenced in 1956 and ended in 1969. The work, being the author’s magnum opus and a colossal contribution to Myanmar Buddhist literature, has been received with enthusiastic acclaim by members of the Saṃgha and the laity alike.

In the year 1980 an historic event in the history of the Saṃgha in Myanmar took place: it was the emergence of the State Saṃgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee comprising representatives of all sects of the Buddhist Saṃgha in Myanmar. The author was unanimously elected General Secretary for life of the Committee, which, as the Supreme Authority on Buddhist religious affairs of the country, is responsible for the growth, development and prosperity of the Buddha Sāsanā.

In addition to his responsibilites as General Secretary of the State Saṃgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee, the author is busily devoted to the service of the Sāsanā in three main fields, namely, providing support and facilities for the emergence of more Tipiṭaka Bearers for the perpetuation of the Sāsanā, for providing support and facilities for the dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings at home and abroad, and providing adequate medical facilities for members of the Saṃgha from all over Myanmar.

For the first task, the author founded the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Organization, the chief aim of which is to nurture young bhikkhus so that they may become one day “ Bearers of the Three Piṭakas and Keepers of the Dhamma-Treasure ” like himself. There are a number of promising learners under his care at Momeik hill near Mingun.

Soon after the formation of the State Saṃgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee, it firmly resolved to establish two separate Universities of Pariyatti Sāsanā in Yangon and Mandalay where the Good Law of the Perfectly Enlightened One would be taught in a new system of education to produce Theras who will spread the teachings in Myanmar and elsewhere. In pursuance of the second objective, the author’s untiring efforts have resulted in magnificent University buildings which have newly sprung up both at Yangon and Mandalay where courses leading to the Degrees of Dhammācariya and Mahā Dhammācariya have been in full swing since 1986.

As the third important project undertaken by the author for the welfare of the Saṃgha, the Jīvitadāna Sāsanā Specialist Hospital for bhikkhus has been founded in Mandalay. It is a 100-bed specialist hospital with all the facilties and equipments for a modern health centre and was formally opened under the auspices of the author himself on August 18, 1990.

In recognition of his great learning and of his invaluable services to the Sāsanā as mentioned above, the Government conferred upon him the title of Aggamahāpaṇḍita ( The Supremely Learned One ) in 1979 and the title of Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru ( The Noble Banner and Great Preceptor of the State ) in 1984.

Hail and hearty at the age of 79, the indefatigable Sayadaw keeps on striving continuously day in and day out towards furtherance of his three main tasks, setting an exemplary model for emulation to all who desire to promote the welfare of beings by means of the Buddha Dhamma.

FOREWORD

Wunna Kyaw Htin Dr. Tha Hla,

Associate Professor of Dermatovenereology

and

Senior Consultant Dermatovenereologist

General Hospital, Yangon,

Chairman of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Ministrative Organization

I have been a devoted disciple of the Mingun Sayadaw Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa since the time of my assignment in 1956 as personal physician of the well-famed Sayadaw who had recently won the coveted title of the Tipiṭakadhara Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika for his brilliant scholarship in all the branches of the Pāḷi Canon.

When the Venerable Sayadaw initiated his programme of service for the promotion of Buddhist learning and dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings, I became closely associated with him in all the three main fields of his endeavour. The Tipiṭaka Nikāya Sāsanā Organization which was founded by the Sayadaw in 1978 was a first step in carrying out the programme of his service to the Sāsanā and I was instructed by the Sayadaw to serve as the Chairman of the Organization. Since its inception in 1978, this Organization has grown immensely in the scope of the service to the Sāsanā; its Executive Committee now oversees the activities of nine branches of its Ministrative Body which includes among others the branches for the Sāsanā Universities at Mandalay and Yangon, the branch for Jīvitadāna Sāsanā Specialist Hospital at Mandalay and the branch for Foreign Mission.

As Chairman of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Sāsanā Organization a function of which is dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings and with the formation of a Foreign Mission Branch of the Ministrative Body of the Organization I feel duty bound to make available to Western readers the literary works of the eminent scholar whose fame has already spread throughout the whole world. I, therefore, had taken the initiative for a project to translate into English the six volumes in eight books of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas by the Sayadaw.

The first volume is of two books, the first book being mainly devoted to the story of Sumedha and the Anudīpanī or ‘ Exposition ’ on it, and the second book to various aspects of Pāramī, ‘ Perfections ’, to be fulfilled by all Bodhisattas or Future Buddhas, and the life stories of twenty-four Buddhas from Buddha Dīpaṅkara to Buddha Kassapa.

The second volume starts dealing with the Buddha Ratana, Jewel of Buddha, and opens with the story of Buddha Gotama from the life of Bodhisatta Deva Setaketu down to the delivery of the Tirokutta Sutta and its Anudīpanī.

The third volume continues to deal with the ‘ Jewel of Buddha ’ and tells of more stories beginning with the story of Upatissa and Kolita who later became the Buddha’s two Chief Disciples, Sāriputta and Moggallāna, and ending with the story of the quarrelsome monks of Kosambī.

The fourth volume being also the Buddha Ratana begins with the Buddha’s visit to Bālakaloṇa village and ends with the taking of refuge in the Triple Gem by king Ajātasattu.

The first half of the fifth volume concluding the Buddha Jewel opens with the story of the Brahmin couple who in former existences had been the Buddha’s parents and closes with the erection of Cetiyas by Emperor Asoka. The second half of that volume devoted to the Jewel of Dhamma is on various topics ranging from the nine attributes of the Buddha to the Ratana Sutta.

The sixth volume on the Jewel of the Saṃgha like the first volume is made up of two books; the first book deals with the life stories of leading male Disciples of the Buddha such as Koṇḍañña, Sāriputta, Moggallāna, etc., while the second book deals with female Disciples such as Mahā Pajāpati Gotamī, Khemā, Uppālavaṇṇā, etc., and important lay devotees such as Tapussa and Bhallika, Anāthapiṇḍika, Citta and so on.

The project envisages the translation of the complete work of the Sayadaw as enumerated above. Through a fortuitous circumstance, I was able to secure the cooperation and assistance of U Ko Lay, formerly Vice Chancellor of Mandalay University, for implementing my project. I find him eminently suited to undertake the translation of the works of the Sayadaw whom he much reveres and honours. Since his retirement from the University in 1963, he has devoted himself to practice of Vipassanā Meditation and to translating Tipiṭaka Pāḷi Texts into English working as a Senior Editor on the Editorial Committee of the Burma Piṭaka Association, Kaba Aye, Yangon. The Association has published his book on “ Guide to Tipiṭaka ” and four of his translations in “ Ten Suttas from the Dīgha Nikāya ”. His other translations from the Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, and the Vinaya Mahāvagga remain to be published in due course. I have therefore entrusted him with the execution of the whole programme of translating the eight books of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas by the Revered Sayadaw. In pressing this onerous assignment on U Ko Lay, I have requested him to try and produce at least one translated book each year in time for the Veneration Ceremony performed in honour of the birth day of the Most Venerable Sayadaw.

Seeking the cooperation of U Tin Lwin, formerly Professor of Pāḷi, Department of Oriental Studies of the Yangon and Mandalay Universities, and working in collaboration with him, U Ko Lay began the arduous task in May 1989. On the 1989 birthday of the Sayadaw, which fell on the 9 -th November, the two scholars after six months of endeavour were able to present the Sayadaw with the Ms of the complete English version together with footnotes and comments of the first part of the first volume.

For this year’s birthday Veneration Ceremony of the Sayadaw, which falls on the full-moon day of Tazaungmon, 1352 M.E., 1st November, 1990, they have brought out the said Ms in the printed form together with the translated Ms for the second portion of the book containing elaborate explanations and enumerations of various doctrinal points which arise in the first portion of the book.

On this auspicious day, which marks the 79th birthday of our Revered Sayadaw I have great pleasure in presenting to foreign readers interested in Theravāda Buddhism as taught in Myanmar tradition with this first product of the translation project of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Sāsanā Organization. We hope to follow this up each year by translations of the remaining volumes of the famous Sayadaw’s literary works.

Wunna Kyaw Htin Dr. Tha Hla

Associate Professor of Dermatovenereology. and

Senior Consultant Dermatovenereologist,

General Hospital, Yangon,

Chairman of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Ministrative Organization Yangon.

Dated, the full-moon day of Tazaungmon, 1352 M.E.,

the 1st November, 1990.

THE AUTHOR’S INTRODUCTION

Namo Buddhāya

Siddham

Kīdiso te mahavīra

abhinīhāro naruttama

kamhi kāle tayā dhīra

patthitā bodhimuttamā

“O Buddha, who is endowed with the four kinds of right exertion, -1 who is the highest among men and higher than Devas and Brahmas, and who is thus Chief of these three categories of beings! How should we comprehend your resolve to gain Buddhahood of great glory, that pervades the whole universe extending from the bottom realm of intense suffering to the top realm of Brahmās. Since when has your mind become inclined to achieve the prime laurel of Perfect Self-Enlightenment, which surpasses the Enlightenment of a Private Buddha and the Enlightenment of a Disciple? ”

1. Right exertion: Sammappadhāna. The four such exertions are:

( i ) The endeavour to prevent the arising of evil which has not yet arisen;

( ii ) The endeavour to put away evil that has arisen;

( iii ) The endeavour to bring about the arising of good which has not yet arisen; and

( iv ) The endeavour to further develop the good that has arisen.

This enquiring note of acclamation was sounded in the sky over the city of Kapilavatthu on the first waning moon of Kason in the year 104 Maha Era. The background story in brief of this question is narrated below.

The Buddha, the Omniscient One and Lord of the Three Worlds, observed the first rains-retreat ( vassa ) in the Deer Park of Isipatana, Vārāṇasī, in the year 103 Mahā Era. During the retreat he converted the Five Ascetics and the group of 54 friends headed by Yasa, son of a wealthy man, leading them to Arahantship. When the retreat was over, he asked them to disseminate the Dhamma, which is excellent in all three aspects - the beginning, the middle and the end - no two of them going in the same direction. He himself went alone towards the forest of Uruvela to convert the three ascetic Kassapa brothers and their followers, numbering one thousand.

On the way to Uruvela, on reaching Kappāsika grove, the Buddha met with thirty Bhaddavaggiya brothers who were searching an absconding woman; he established them in the lower Paths and Fruitions and made them ehi-bhikkhus. Then he proceeded alone to Uruvela where he liberated the eldest brother, Uruvela Kassapa, with his 500 followers from heretical views. He did the same for Nadī Kassapa with 300 followers and Gayā Kassapa with 200 followers. Finally, he preached all the one thousand ascetics the Ādittapariyāya Sutta on the stone slab at Gayāsīsa and thereby established them in the Fruition of Arahantship. And being followed by all the one thousand newly accomplished Arahants, the Buddha set out on a journey to the city of Rājagaha.

The day the Buddha arrived in Rājagaha, he helped King Bimbisāra and Brahmin householders, one hundred and ten thousand in all, with his teaching to reach the state of Sotāpattiphala and another ten thousand Brahmin householders to reach the state of lay devotees established in the Three Refuges. The following day the, Buddha accepted Veḷuvana Monastery generously donated by King Bimbisāra in support of the Buddha’s ministry. It was the first monastery the Buddha had ever accepted and the occasion of the Buddha’s acceptance of the monastery was marked by a great earthquake. From that time onwards the Buddha had taught all those worthy of conversion, who came to him, including those who would eventually become Chief Disciples, Great Disciples and Ordinary Disciples. He did so as though he were dispensing among them medicine for deathlessness.

While the Buddha was thus busily engaging himself his father King Suddhodana sent nine ministers one after another, each with one thousand men, on a mission to beg the Buddha to return to Kapilavatthu. But they all became Arahants and sent back no information to the king. So the Buddha’s birthmate, the minister Kāḷudāyī, was sent as the tenth envoy also with one thousand men. Kāḷudāyī and his men became Arahants, too, and spent their time enjoying the bliss of their spiritual attainment. When the cold season was over and spring came, Kāḷudāyī made a persuasive supplication to the Buddha in sixty four verses begging the Buddha’s return to the home of his kinsmen. The Buddha then journeyed to the city of Kapilavatthu on the first day after the full moon of Tabaung travelling slowly, covering only one yojana a day, and arrived at Kapilavatthu on the first day after the full moon of Kason in the year 104 Mahā Era.

The same day the Sakyan princes welcomed the Buddha and his host of bhikkhus in a great ceremony and took them to Nigrodhārāma Monastery as they had arranged before hand. On arrival at the Monastery the Buddha sat in the seat specially prepared for him and remained quietly surrounded by twenty thousand Arahants. The Sakyans who took too great a pride in their high birth thought to themselves, “ This prince Siddhattha is younger than we. He is only a young brother, or a young nephew, or a young grandson of ours. ” And puffed up with conceit they urged their younger kinsmen, “ You bow in homage to the Buddha; we shall, however, stay behind you. ”

The Buddha knew the inner minds of the Sakyan Princes swelling with pride of their birth, and thought to himself, “ These proud kinsfolk of mine do not realize that they have grown old without accomplishing anything beneficial for themselves. They know nothing about the nature of a Buddha. They know nothing about the power of a Buddha. What if I should display a Buddha's might by performing the Twin Miracle of water and fire. I will make a jewelled walk in the sky, a platform as broad as the ten thousand universe. And I will walk to and fro on it and pour forth a shower of sermons to suit the temperaments of all those who come to me. " No sooner had he resolved thus than Brahmas and Devas acclaimed their joyous approval.

Then the Buddha entered upon the Fourth Jhāna making white ( colour ) as his object of concentration. On arising from that Jhāna he made a firm resolve that light should spread all over the ten thousand universe. Immediately after that resolution, all the universe was flooded with light to the great delight of men, Devas and Brahmās. While they were rejoicing, the Buddha rose up in the sky by developing the supernormal power through exercise of the Fourth Jhana. Then he proceeded to perform the Yamakapāṭihāriya, the Twin Miracle, which consisted of appearance of flames of fire and streams of water emitted alternatively ( 1 ) from the top and bottom of the body, ( 2 ) from the front and the back, ( 3 ) from the eyes, ( 4 ) from the ears, ( 5 ) from the nose, ( 6 ) from the shoulders, ( 7 ) from the hands, ( 8 ) from the sides, ( 9 ) from the feet, ( 10 ) from the fingers, toes and from between one finger and another as well as from between one toe and another, ( 11 ) from each hair of the body, and ( 12 ) from every pore of the body. The emitted fire sparks and water sprays fell amidst the crowds of human and celestial beings as though the Buddha was letting fall the dust from his feet onto their heads. The exhibition of the Twin Miracle with the emission of fire and water alternately from the body of the Buddha created a marvellous spectacle of great splendour which inspired all the Sakyan princes with awe and reverence, moving them to utter words of resounding praise.

After the performance of the Twin Miracle, the Buddha created a jewelled walk of great brilliance which extended from east to west reaching even beyond ten thousand universe. The Buddha walked up and down the jewelled walk and delivered several discourses to humans and Devas suiting their mental dispositions.

At that time the Venerable Sāriputta, who was resting at Gijjhakuṭa Hill, Rājagaha, saw ( through his supernormal power ) the whole event ( taking place at Kapilavatthu ) and thought to himself, “ I shall now go to the Buddha and make a request for a complete narration of the life histories of the Bodhisattas and the Perfections they had fulfilled. ” Accordingly, he lost no time to gather the five hundred Arahants, who were all his co-residents, and said to them, “ Come, we will go. We will pay a visit to the Master and ask him about the past stories of the Buddhas. ” Having urged them to accompany him, they all travelled through space by means of supernormal power with so fast a speed surpassing that of the wind and the storm. In a moment the Venerable Sāriputta with the company of bhikkhus arrived before the Buddha and paid homage to him. Then he uttered the verse,

“ Kīdiso te mahāvīra, abhinīhāro naruttama ” etc.,

mentioned at the outset, thereby asking the Buddha to narrate elaborately how he had received the Definite Prophecy from the Former Buddhas and how he had fulfilled the ten Perfections, which extend to thirty in all, for the Bodhisattas.

Then the Buddha, who was still on the walkway, responded with two verses:

“ Pītipāmojjajananaṃ, sokasallavinodanaṃ, ” etc.,

meaning: “ Listen to the Buddhavaṃsa Discourse that could give you joy and happiness, remove the thorns of sorrow and bestow upon you the three kinds of bliss, namely; human existence, divine existence and Nibbāna. Having thus listened, try to follow and practise the Path as will be explained in this Discourae that could dispel conceit, eradicate sorrow, liberate you from saṃsāra and put an end to all suffering. " Thus the Buddha, out of compassion, urged all humans, Devas and Brahmas reciting the verse numbering four bhāṇavāras ( 1070 stanzas ). -*

* One bhāṇavāra: is equal to about 270 stanza each of four lines, recited in one session of a Synod.

The Commentary on the Buddhavaṃsa

The Buddhavaṃsa Text is included in the Khuddaka Nikāya of the Suttanta Piṭaka recited at the First, Second and Third Councils by Arahants. The Commentary on it entitled Madhuratthavilāsinī consisting of 26 bhāṇavāras was authored by the Venerable Buddhadatta, a resident of the Port Monastery of Kāvīrapaṭṭana of the Cola Country in South India.

The Great Buddhavaṃsa Story

During the reign of King Bagyidaw ( A.D.1819-37 ), the Fourth Founder of the City of Ratanāpūra, the First Ngakhon Sayadaw recipient of the title of Ādiccavaṃsābhidhaja Mahā Dhammarājādhirājaguru, wrote the Buddhavaṃsa Story in prose combining the Text and its Commentary, interspersed with certain Pāḷi verses and their word-for-word translations for the aforesaid benefits of joy, end of sorrow, etc., by young men and women of good families. He did not translate the whole Text word for word ( as there already exist well known translations in that style called nissaya. )

That Buddhavaṃsa in Myanmar prose was published in 1297 M.E ( 1935 ) by Zabumeitswe Piṭaka Press, Yangon, in three volumes with the title “ The Great Buddhavaṃsa Story. ”

Sudhammavatī Buddhavaṃsa

Not long after the Great Buddhavaṃsa Story had been published, The Sudhammavatī Buddhavaṃsa Story appeared in one volume of poetical prose written by Editor U Htun Sein.

The State Buddha Sāsana Council’s version of the Nabā Buddhavaṃsa

After the founding of the new independent country of the Union of Myanmar, the people, both the Saṃgha and the laity, were busy assiduously making preparations and arrangements, shouldering their respective responsibilities for the holding of the Sixth Buddhist Council; the Prime Minister U Nu, seeing their dedicated activities, was inspired by the profound thought of bringing out a new version of the Buddhavaṃsa Text and its Commentary - a version that should include everything that is connected with the Buddha. Accordingly he requested me at his house on the occasion of Anekaja ceremony and inauguration of his shrine-room to write such a saga of the Buddhas in commemoration of the great event of the Buddhist Council.

I said to the Prime Minister then: “ I have been assigned to participate as a Tipiṭakadhara in the Sixth Buddhist Council which is to be held soon, and I still have to work hard to become qualified for the title. ” With that excuse, I refused to comply with his request. Indeed, at that time I had just passed the written examination in the Vinaya Piṭaka and was about to sit for another one on the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.

Succession of Compilers

Undaunted by my refusal of the request the Prime Minister persisted in his earnest effort to produce the Proposed book by approaching other scholars. And the compilation started first under the supervision of Medhāvī Sayagyi U Saing. Some months later when only a portion had been done, the work was interrupted until Mahapaññābala, Pathamagyaw Sayagyi U Kyee Pe took it over as supervisor. In the same way, the compilation again passed on to Aggamahāpaṇḍita Sayagyi U Lin, M.A. After one and a half years he could finish compiling only the first, volume of the series ( from the story of Sumedha up to the end of the story of Buddha Kassapa ). Then U Lin passed away to our great regret, leaving only the fame of his learning.

The assignment given to me

It was on the 11th day of the waxing moon in the month of Nadaw, 1316, ( December 6, 1954 ), that Sayagyi U Lin passed away; and four days later the sponsor of my ordination and spiritual father, the wealthy Sir U Thwin, Thadothiri Thudhamma, Chairman of the State Buddha Sāsana Council and Patron of the Sixth Buddhist Council, came to me in person at the request of the Prime Minister and asked me not to refuse should the Prime Minister make a supplication for writing a Buddhavaṃsa. On the full moon day of Pyatho, 1316 ( 8-1-55 ) the Prime Minister himself came to see me at my temporary residence at the Thathana Yeiktha Meditation Centre and made a formal request as follows:

( 1 ) Please supervise the compilation of a treatise on the lives of the Buddhas. In so doing please include everything about the Buddha, not leaving out even minor details. If one volume is not enough, make it two; if two is not enough make it four, eight and so on. It is important that the work should be exhaustive.

( 2 ) The writing should be intelligible and interesting to all, young and old, even to non-Buddhists, who wish to know about the lives of the Buddhas.

( 3 ) Should the Venerable Sayadaw undertake the task of writing the Mahā Buddhavaṃsa in Myanmar, it will be welcomed by all, both the Saṃgha and the laity alike.

The request had been made repeatedly, the first time in 1313 M.E. ( A.D.1915 ), the second time in 1315 ( 1953 ); and now in 1316 ( 1954 ), by my spiritual father and finally by the Prime Minister himself. I therefore felt that I should no longer refuse to comply with their request. Accordingly I gave my consent firmly saying, “ Very well, Dayakagyi, when the proceedings of the Council are over, I will take charge of the compilation and supervise the work to the best of my ability without sparing my energy. ”

After the Prime Minister left, I reminded myself of the following dictum.

Yaṃ hi kayirā taṃ hi vade.

Yaṃ na kayirā na taṃ vade.

Akarontaṃ bhāsamānaṃ

parijānanti paṇḍitā.

One should say what one would do,

One say not what one does not.

He who says but does not do

Is subject to blame by the wise.

Supplication made by the State Buddha Sāsana Council

Not long after I had promised the Prime Minister, the State Buddha Sāsanā Council also made its own supplication. In reply to it, I stipulated the following three terms for carrying out the work: ( 1 ) the work would be done voluntarily without acceptance of any honorarium, ( 2 ) I would have nothing to do with office administrative work, and ( 3 ) I would take charge of the literary matters only in which I feel competent. I added that if these three conditions were agreeable to the State Buddha Sāsanā Council, it would mean that I had accepted the assignment.

Some days later three officials from the State Buddha Sāsanā Council namely, Chief Editor U Ba Hmi and Editors Saya Htun and Saya U Ba Than, approached me with the favourable reply that the State Buddha Sāsanā Council had agreed to all the points raised by me. Then in accepting the compilation work I said to Saya Htun and Saya U Ba Than, “ Subject to failure is a work without a leader; so is a work with too many leaders. ” “ I accept the work as its supervisor so that the compilation of the Buddhavaṃsa may not fail. You carry on with the assignment as has been planned since the time of Sayagyi U Lin. I shall attend to the editing work when the proceedings of the Council come to an end. ”

The Prime Minister’s supplication in writing

As though ‘ to drive in a nail where it is already firm or to strap on an iron belt where it is already tight, ’ the Prime Minister’s formal supplication in writing came. The letter was dated the 14th waxing moon of Nadaw, 2499 Sāsanā Era or 1317 Myanmar Era ( December 28, 1955 ). ( The translation of the letter is omitted here. )

Sayagyi U Lin’s great learning

When the Sixth Buddhist Council and the ceremonies commemorating the 2500th year of Buddhism in 1318 ( 1956 ) came to an end, in compliance with the Prime Minister’s supplication and in fulfilment of my promise, I started editing the MSS so far prepared on the Maha Buddhavaṃsa. I found them running over 700 pages written while the Sayagyi was still alive, full of noteworthy facts with profound meaning, covering a wide field but not easy to be grasped by ordinary people. In preparing these MSS it looked as if the Sayagyi was making a final display of his great genius of learning.

When Sayagyi U Lin first planned the compilation of the Mahā Buddhavaṃsa, he had in mind to write it only briefly and did so accordingly. But the Prime Minister U Nu earnestly urged him saying, “ Let it be elaborate as much as possible, Sayagyi. Write all there is to know about the Buddha; there cannot be anything that is too insignificant to be left out. Please write to the best of your ability for the benefit of the coming generations. ” Sayagyi then put aside all that had been written before briefly and worked afresh keeping his mind steadfastly on the subject of the Buddhavaṃsa all the time. When he began working on arrival at office, he would put both his arms on the desk and start dictating to his stenographer giving him no rest, sometimes making a clicking sound with the tongue, at other times clenching the fists, closing the eyes and gnashing the teeth to concentrate his energy. All this was known from the information given by Saya Htun.

New Plan of the compilation of the Mahā Buddhavaṃsa

Such a very ambitious literary work, full of noteworthy doctrinal points with their deep meanings, like a treasure house of knowledge presented by the Sayagyi as if ‘ he had hoisted the flag of learning ’ of his lifetime should not be published as originally envisaged by him. I feared that readers would find it rather confusing and difficult to read and understand.

Therefore the writing of the Mahā Buddhavamsa had to be planned anew as follows:

(1) The main subject of the Buddhavaṃsa should be treated separately;

(2) The Chapter ( 2 ) on “ Rare appearance of a Buddha ” should be re-written and get confirmed by learned Sayadaws;

(3) A new chapter on miscellaneous matters concerning duties which should be comprehended and performed by every aspirant of Buddhahood should be added;

(4) Explanatory notes and interpretations should be given fully in a separate chapter entitled Anudīpanī to serve as a supplement to the first part of the first volume, and

(5) Difficult usages should be made easy by replacing them with simple ones in Myanmar.

When the MSS of the Maha Buddhavaṃsa finally went to the press of the State Buddha Sāsana Council, Sayagyi Saya Nyan, Mahā Paññābala, Professor of Pāḷi, acted as Chief Proof Reader.

Exhortation to readers

This version of the Mahā Buddhavaṃsa contains the same material with the same meaning as that preserved in the original Buddhavaṃsa Text, its Commentary, etc.; the only difference between the original works and this lies in the medium employed, the former in Pāḷi and the latter in Myanmar.

Since a Buddhavaṃsa can truly confer upon its worthy readers such benefits as ( 1 ) joy and happiness, ( 2 ) end of sorrow, and ( 3 ) the three attainments of human existence, divine existence and Nibbāna, as has been pronounced by the Buddha, this Introduction is concluded with an exhortation in verse so that each reader might enjoy his or her share of welfare.

Pātubhūto Mahā Buddhavaṃsā

buddhatthadīpako

Buddhavādīnamatthāya

taṃ nisāmetha sādhavo.

O you worthy men of gentle mind, seeking your own interest and that of others! This book of the Maha Buddhavaṃsa, a version of the State Buddha Sāsana Council which has made its appearance in commemoration of the convening of the Sixth Buddhist Council, resembles a plot of land on which virtuous Buddhists may sow seeds of the Dhamma; it vividly describes for the benefits of those who are virtuous devotees of Buddhism how the Buddha, The Friend of the three classes of beings, had performed unique, meritorious deeds beginning from his existence as Sumedha. Therefore you all who aspire after the fourfold knowledge of the Path, the true Enlightenment, should study it carefully with an eye of wisdom, fully confident that you will gain the fruits of joy and happiness, end of sorrow and the three attainments of human existence, divine existence and Nibbana.

U Vicittasārābhivamsa Tipiṭakadhara Dhammabhandagārika

The 7th waxing moon of Wazo, 1399, Myanmar Era

Ti-Ni

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SALUTATION & INTENTION¹

Namo tassa Bhagavāto Arahanto sammā-sambuddhassa²

[ 1 ] With most respectful adoration I pay obeisance to the Buddha who, like his predecessors, has made a very rare appearance; who, like them, has no peers among Brahmās, Devas and human beings in the three worlds; who, like them, forms a refuge for all these beings who bow in homage; and who is like them in all aspects of glory, virtues and attributes (except in eight individual features³ such as life-span, height, lineage, duration of strenuous exertion, rays emitted from body, conveyance used on renouncing the world, Bodhi-tree and size of dais as seat).

[ 2 ] With most respectful adoration I pay obeisance to the Dhamma, which, through his Omniscience and out of profound compassion for all beings, has been well taught⁴ by that Buddha, and which has been held in high esteem by himself.

With most respectful adoration I pay obeisance to the Saṃghā, the Order of Noble Ones, who have become true sons of the Master by their proper and upright practice⁵ of the Dhamma.

Having paid obeisance to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṃghā, I shall now write in a language neither too brief nor too elaborate, neither too simple nor too difficult, and relying mainly on the canonical texts of the Buddha vaṃsa⁶ and its commentary and also taking relevent materials from other texts and commentaries, the Mahā-Buddha vaṃsa, the Great Chronicle of the Buddhas - a book on the lives of twenty-five Enlightened Ones from out of innumerable Buddhas past, whose number is far greater than that of the grains of sand of the Ganges,⁷ beginning with the account of the Exalted Dīpaṅkarā, from whom the Future Gotama as the Hermit Sumedhā received the definite prophecy⁸ that he would become a Perfectly Self-Enlight ened One.

[ 3 ] May those virtuous people, who are desirous of seeking merit and knowledge; who, with abiding faith, have established a firm foundation of refuge in the Buddha,⁹ the Dhammā and the Saṃgha; and who are properly and uprightly cultivating the threefold practice of morality (sīla), concentraton (samādhi) and insight (paññā) - may they easily attain the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna.

1. The original word in Pālī is paṭiññā; which literally means "promise" or "VOW."

2. This Pāḷi sentence is the formula of great honour paid to the Buddha which may be translated "Honour to Him the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Self-Enlightened One." A Buddhist literary work usually begins with it to show the author's exclamation of obeisance.

3. These are called aṭṭhavemattāni, which Malalasekera translates "eight particulars in which the Buddhas differ from each other." His rendering of these eight are: "length of life in the epoch in which each is born, the height of his body, his social rank, (some are born as khattiyas, others as brahmins), the length of his austerities, the aura of his body (thus in the case of Maṇgala, his aura spread throughout the ten thousand world systems, while that of Gotama extended only one fathom), the conveyance in which he makes his renunciation, the tree under which he attains Enlightenment, and the size of the seat (pallaṅka) under the Bodhi tree." Dictionary of Pāḷi Proper Names under Buddha.

4. This is the first attribute of the Dhamma.

5. These are the first and second of the attributes of the Saṃgha.

6. The fourteenth book of the Khuddaka-Nikāya of the Sutta-Pitaka.

7. Cp. "Few are the sands of the Ganges,
Innumerable are the Conquerors,
Who have entered Nirvana .... " This is from U Pe Maung Tin's translation of the popular Pāḷi gāthā beginning with the word "Sambuddhe." The relevant Pāḷi composition in two lines are; "Appakā vālukā gangā
anantkā nibbutā jinā,..."

8. Receiving of the definite prophecy (Niyata-vyākarana) is an important feature in the spiritual evolution of a Bodhisatta. We shall see more about it when we come to the story of Sumedhā.

9. Here the author adds an adjectival clause reading "whose supremacy in the three worlds is like the ruby-studded pinnacle of a palace." The three worlds here are the three realms of sensuality (kāma), materiality (rūpa) and immateriality (arūpa). The first corresponds to the realm of five senses, comprising the four woeful states (apāya), the human world and the six celestial worlds. The material and immaterial worlds belong to the Brahmas.

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RARE APPEARANCE OF A BUDDHA.

Singular opportunity of living in an age when a Buddha appears.

[ 4 ] The wealthy Anāthapiṇḍika,¹ soon to become the donor of Jetavana monastery, on his visit to Rājagaha when he would see the Buddha for the first time, heard the word "Buddha" from his wealthy brother-in-law² in Rājagaha. As soon as he heard the sound "Buddha" he exclaimed, "Ghoso'pi kho eso gahapati dullabho lokasmiṃ yadidaṃ 'buddho buddho' ti", meaning "Friend, rare indeed it is in the world even to hear the utterance 'Buddha, Buddha.' "

While the Buddha was staying in the market town of Āpaṇa in the country of Aṅguttarāpa, Sela³, a leading Brahmin teacher, heard from Keṇiya the matted-haired ascetic, the word "Buddha", As soon as he heard the sound "Buddha" it occurred to him thus, "ghoso' pi kho eso dullabho lokasmiṃ yad idaṃ 'buddho buddho' ti' ", meaning "Rare indeed it is in the world even to hear the utterance 'Buddha. Buddha.' Not long after, together with three [ 5 ] hundred followers, he gained ehi-bhikkhu⁴ monkhood, and seven days thence he attained Arahantship with them.

In the light of these canonical extracts, it is very rare and difficult in the world even to hear the word "Buddha, Buddha;" inexpressiably and extremely more so indeed is the appearance of a Buddha.

In this respect, it may be noted that the utterance "diamond" may refer to a genuine diamond or a fake. Likewise, because rumours of a coming Buddha had been widespread prior to the Buddha's appearance, both Ānāthapiṇḍka and Sela must have heard before the false claim of six heretical teachers⁵ to be "Buddhas." But just as the sound (of the word) "diamond," only when spoken of a genuine one, would please one who can differentiate between a genuine diamond and a fake, so also, to such men of highly developed intelligence as Anāthapiṇḍika and Sela, the utterance "Buddha" could have been delightful only when spoken of the true Buddha.

Just as taking a fake diamond to be genuine by unworthy persons of poor intelligence is a wrong notion, even so taking their masters (the six heretical teachers) to be genuine Buddhas by those who followed them was a wrong and harmful conclusion (micchādhimokkha).

In order to appreciate more profoundly the rare phenomenon of a Buddha's appearance in the world, it is important to know briefly (at the outset) the following (matter) concerning a Bodhisatta and a Buddha:

1. Bodhisatta (A Being destined to attain Enlightenment, i.e., a Future Buddha),
2. Bodhisatta-kicca (Duties of a Future Buddha),
3. Buddha (A Supreme Being who has fulfilled the duties of a Future Buddha and has consequently attained Enlightenment), and
4. Buddha-kicca, (Daily Duties of a Buddha).

I. Bodhisatta. [ 6 ] The Fourfold Insight Knowledge of the Path (Maggañāṇa)⁶ with or without accompaniment of Omniscience (Sabbaññutañāṇa)⁷ is called Enlightenment (Bodhi). Enlightenment is of three kinds:

(1) Sammā-sambodhi: Enlightenment consisting of the Fourfold Insight-Knowledge of the Path with the accompaniment of Omniscience. The Fourfold Insight-Knowledge of the Path is understanding of the Four Noble Truths⁸ by oneself without a teacher's help, and it has distinctive power of removing mental defilements as well as habitual tendencies (vāsanā) of past existences, Omniscience is understanding of all principles worthy of understanding.
(2) Pacceka-Bodhi: Enlightenment consisting of the Fourfold Insight-Knowledge of the Path which is understanding of the Four Noble Truths by oneself without a teacher's help.
(3) Sāvaka-Bodhi: Enlightenment consisting of the Fourfold Insight-Knowledge of the Path which is understanding of the Four Noble Truths only with the help of a teacher.

[ 7 ] (1) Noble Persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise Sammā-Sambodhi are called Sammā Sambodhisatta, "Future Perfect Buddhas,"⁹ (2) Noble Persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise Pacceka-Bodhi are called Pacceka-Bodhisatta, "Future Private Buddhas," and (3) Noble Persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise Sāvaka-Bodhi are called Sāvaka-Bodhisatta, "Future Disciples of a Buddha." Three types of Future Buddhas¹⁰

Of these three kinds of Noble Persons (1) Sammā Sambodhisatta or Future Perfect Buddhas are grouped into three types: (a) Paññādhika Future Buddhas, (b) Saddhādhika Future Buddhas, and (d) Vīriyādhika Future Buddhas.

Buddhahood is attainment of Omniscience (Sabbaññutañāna). To attain this Supreme Wisdom the seeker must have a mental make-up in which Wisdom is predominant. The factor of predorminant Wisdom means careful consideration and forethought in doing everything physically, verbally or mentally. By so doing, one's wisdom becomes strengthened and mature existence after existence so that in due course one painlessly attains Omniscience which is far superior to all kinds of wisdom. Just as money is gained in the world by means of monetary investment even so Omniscience is gained by means of intellectual investment.

(a) Future Buddhas called Paññādhika with the factor of predominant Wisdom always present in their endeavours [ 8 ] become Buddhas after fulfilling their Perfections (Pārīmī) ¹¹ for four asaṅkhyeyya¹² and a hundred thousand aeons¹³.

(b) Other Future Buddhas also believe that they can become Buddhas by fulfilling Perfections and in their mental make-up such belief is predominant. With them Faith plays a greater role than Wisdom. They are therefore called Saddhādhika Future Buddhas. "Future Buddhas with predominant Faith." Since they are not led by Wisdom but by Faith in their fulfilment of Perfections they cannot become Buddhas after four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, but only after eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons.

(c) There are still other Future Buddhas who rely solely upon their Energy (Industriousness). For them Wisdom is not a principal factor. Neither do they place emphasis on the Faith that Perfections lead to Enlightenment. Holding that Energy brings about Buddhahood, they give top priority to Energy in their fulfilment of Perfections and become Buddhas only after sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons. They are therefore called Vīriyādhika Future Buddhas, "Future Buddhas with Predominant Energy."

Thus it should be noted that three designations Paññādhika, Saddhādhika and Vīriyādhika are applied only to Future Buddhas. Otherwise one would think that they belonged to Fully Enlightened Buddhas. These distinctions exist only while they remain as Future Buddhas, but once they attain Buddhahood, they are all identical in respect of Wisdom, Faith and Energy. One cannot say which Buddha is more accomplished than the other in each of these aspects.

[ 9 ] Paññādhikānaṃ hi saddhā mandā hoti paññā tikkhā;
Saddhādhikānaṃ paññā majjhimā hoti saddhā balavā;
Vīriyādhikānaṃ saddhā-paññā mandā vīriyaṃ balavaṃ.¹⁴
In Paññādhika Future Buddhas, Wisdom is strong but Faith is weak;
In Saddhādhika Future Buddhas, Wisdom is medial but Faith is strong;
In Viriyādhika Future Buddhas, Faith and Wisdom are weak, but Energy is strong.

Reasons for difference between the three types of Future Buddhas.

As has been stated, Bodhisattas are of three types with three respective periods of fulfilment of Perfections,namely, four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons and sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons. A reason for this difference is mentioned in the Pāramīdawgan Pyo¹⁵, an epic composed by the celebrated poet of Old Burma Ashin Sīlavaṃsa¹⁶. According to it¹⁷ the difference lies in the Path chosen by the individual Future Buddha, viz., a Paññādhika Future Buddha chooses the Wisdom Path which takes four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons to reach the goal; a Saddhādhika Future Buddha chooses the Faith Path which takes eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons to reach the goal; and a Vīriyādhika Future Buddha chooses the Energy Path which takes sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons to reach the goal.

[ 10 ] According to the view of other teachers as mentioned in the Pakiṇṇaka-kathā of the Cariyā-Piṭaka Commentary, the difference between the three durations lies in the three degrees of energy, namely, strong, medial and weak. ( This view implies that it takes Paññādhika Bodhisattas only four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons for fulfilment of Perfections because of their predominant energy; the view is thus not free from the fault of confusion (saṅkara-dosa)¹⁸ as it mixes up Paññādhika Future Buddhas with Viriyādhika Future Buddhas.)

The view which appeals to the Commentator Dhammapāla and others is that the difference in duration is due to the difference in the degrees - strong, medial and weak of maturity of Perfections leading to emancipation (Vimuttiparipācanīya Dhamma).

To elaborate, even at the time of receiving the prophecy the Bodhisattas are of three types:

(i) Ugghāṭitaññū Bodhisattas,¹⁹ (ii) Vipañcitaññū Bodhisattas²⁰ and (iii) Neyya Bodhisattas²¹

(i) Ugghāṭitaññū Bodhisattas are those who have the capacity to attain Arahantship together with the six Higher Spiritual Powers (Abhiññā)²² and four kinds of Analytical [ 11 ] Knowledge (Paṭisambhidā)²³; they can attain that stage even before the end of the third line of a verse-sermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple (Sāvaka-Bodhi) in that very existence. ( This is one of the eight factors for receiving the prophecy.)

(ii) vipañcitaññū Bodhisattas are those who have the capacity to attain Arahantship together with the six Higher Spiritual Powers (Abhiññā), they can attain that stage before the end of the fourth line of a verse-sermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple (Savaka-Bodhi) in that very existence.

(iii) Neyya Bodhisattas are those who have the capacity to attain Arahantship together with the six Higher Spiritual Powers (Abhiññā), they can attain that stage at the end of the whole verse-sermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple (Sāvaka-Bodhi) in that very existence.

With Ugghāṭitaññū Bodhisattas the degree of maturity of Perfections leading to emancipation is so strong that they have to endeavour only for four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons after receiving the prophecy. With Vipañcitaññū Bodhisattas the degree of maturity of Perfections leading to emancipation is medial and they have to endeavour for eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons after receiving the prophecy. With Ñeyya Bodhisattas the degree of maturity of Perfections leading to emancipation is so weak that they have to endeavour for sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons after receiving the prophecy.

Ugghāṭitaññū Bodhisattas are identical with Paññādhika Bodhisattas; so are Vipañcitaññū Bodhisattas with Saddhādhika Bodhisattas and Ṅeyya Bodhisattas with Vīriyādhika Bodhisattas.

[ 12 ] Impossibility of attainment of Buddhahood before completing the required period of Perfections

The paddy species that ripens only when it is three, four or five months old by no means yields crops in fifteen days or a month although watering and weeding may have been done many times a day; its stems and leaves cannot grow (as much as one would like) and its ears cannot start bearing seeds, thrive and mature. In the same way, it should be noted that all the three types of Bodhisattas by no means attain full Buddhahood with its perfectly ripe fruit of Omniscience before they have completed the full course of Perfections that lasts a hundred thousand aeons in addition to four, eight or sixteen asaṅkhyeyya even if, since receiving the prophecy, they have given daily alms like those of Prince Vessantara²⁴ and have observed pertinent virtues such as morality, etc.

2. Bodhisatta-kicca.

Mere desire to possess wealth and not working for it leads nowhere. Only when one works hard enough can one hope to gain the desired object. In the same way, the three types of Future Buddhas who wish to attain the above mentioned three respective types of Enlightenment attain them only when they have fulfilled their Perfections (Pāramī), sacrificed their life and limb in charity (Cāga) and developed their virtues through practice (Cariya) as means of achieving the Enlightenment which they so desire.

[ 13 ] In a business enterprise the extent of profit gained is determined by the capital invested and the effort put in. When the capital is large and the effort great, the profit is considerable; when the capital and effort are fair, the accruing profit is just fair; when the capital and effort are little, the profit gained is little. In the same way, there exist distinctions between Enlightenment attained by those who make investment in the form of fulfilment of Perfections, Sacrifice of life and limb in charity and development of virtues-the practices which are conducive to arising of Enlightenment²⁵(Bodhiparipācaka). The profits gained in the form of Eightenment differ in as much as there are differences in their investment of Perfections, sacrifices and virtues through Practice.

The differences may be explained as follows:

(1) Samma-Sambodhisattas, Future Buddhas, who even before the definite prophecy (made by a Buddha saying "This person shall attain Buddhahood under a certain name in a certain world,")²⁶ accumulate merits and make the mental resolution to become a Buddha.

As mentioned in the passage

Aham pi pubbabuddhesu, buddhattamabhipatthayiṃ
manasā yeva hutvāna, dhammarājā asaṅkhiyā
in the Buddhāpadāna of the Apadāna,²⁷ a Future Buddha aspires mentally to Buddhahood in the presence of innumerable Buddhas throughout incalculable aeons.

After thus making the mental resolution for attainment of Buddhahood and accumulating special merits for an inestimable period of time, when he becomes endowed with the eight factors²⁸ (like Sumedhā the Hermit), a Bodhisatta receives the definite prophecy from a living Buddha.

[ 13 ] Here it should be noted that the act of resolution by an aspirant to become a Buddha (abhinīhāra)²⁹ is made up of two phases; as aspiration to Enlightenment prior to his possession of the eight factors is mainly mental, his act of resolution made before Buddhas one after another is not complete, and he is not yet entitled to the designation of Bodhisatta.

But when he becomes endowed with eight factors like Sumedhā and, on that very account, he now makes the resolution saying:

"Iminā me adhikārena katena purisuttame
sabbaññutaṃ pāpuṇitvā tāremi janataṃ bahuṃ''³⁰ which means
As the fruit of this great meritorious deed done by me for the sake of this Omniscient Buddha³¹ (without regard even for my life,) may I, having myself attained Omniscient Buddhahood, be able to save multitudes of beings." His act of resolution becomes complete then and there, and it enables him to be worthy of receiving the definite prophecy.

It should be noted that this complete act of resolution (abhinīhāra) is the great wholesome consciousness³² (intention or volition) that arises as a result of his reflection on the unimaginable attributes of a Buddha and his great compassion for the welfare of the entire world of beings. And this great wholesome consciousness has the unique power of motivating his fulfilment of Perfections, Sacrifice of life and limb in charity and development of virtues through Practice.

[ 15 ] The moment that great wholesome consciousness arises in the Future Buddha, he sets himself on the Path leading to Omniscience. Because he is definitely on his way to Buddhahood, he now wins the title Bodhisatta. Owing to the great complete resolution which, as has been explained above, is the great wholesome consciousness, there becomes established in him the wholesome aspiration for full Omniscience and the unrivalled ability to fulfil Perfections, to sacrifice life and limb in charity and to develop virtues which form requisites for attainment of Omniscience.

And also because of the aforesaid great wholesome consciousness he reflects on the Perfections to be accomplished and determines the order for doing so. He does it by means of the knowledge of investigation of Perfections, (Pāramī-pavicaya-ñāṇa), etc., which enables him to penetrate things without a teacher's help. This knowledge is a precursor to attainment of Omniscience; it is followed by the actual fulfilment of Perfections one after another.

As mentioned in the Nidāna-katha of the Cariyā-Piṭaka Commentary,³³ after receiving the definite prophecy of Buddhahood, the Future Buddha ceaselessly and uniquely strives to fulfil Perfections (Pāramī), Sacrifices (Cāga) and virtues through Practice (Cariya)³⁴ which are requisites for achieving the Path-Knowledge of Arahantship (Arahattamagga-ñāṇa) and Omniscience (Sabbaññuta-ñāṇa) by four means of development, namely, (i) sabbasambhāra bhāvanā, (ii) nirantara bhāvanā, (iii) cirakāla-bhāvanā and (iv) sakkacca- bhāvanā.

[ 16 ] Of these four (i)sabbasambhāra-bhāvanā is complete development of the entire range of Perfections; (ii)nirantara-bhāvanā is development of Perfections throughout the minimum period of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, or the medial period of eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, or the maximum period of sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, without a break of even a single existence; (iii) cirakāla-bhāvanā is development of Perfections for a long duration which is not an aeon less than the minimum period of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons; and (iv) sakkacca-bhāvanā is development of Perfections with seriousness and thoroughness.³⁵

Moral qualities of a Future Buddha.

The Future Buddha, who has received the definite prophecy, is strongly moved by great compassion for beings when he sees these helpless ones who have no refuge in this difficult journey of life, who are beset with a variety of intolerably acute sufferings such as those springing from birth, old age, sickness and death; of killings, imprisonment of beings maimed and disabled; of hardships associated with earning a living and the sufferings of beings in woeful states. Being so moved by this great compassion, he forbears his own suffering from such outrageous oppressive atrocities as cutting off of the hand, the leg, the ear, etc., perpetrated against him by those totally blind and ignorant people, and his compassion for them is long and enduring.

He suffuses them with compassion in this manner, "How shall I treat these people who have wronged me? I am of truth the person who is striving for Perfections with a view to liberating them from the woes of the cycle of births. Powerful indeed is delusionl Forceful indeed is craving! Sad it is that, being overwhelmed by craving and delusion, they have committed such great offences even against me who am eṅdeavouring to liberate them thus.

[ 17 ] Because they have perpetrated these outrages, serious troubles lie in wait for them."

Shedding his compassion on them thus, he tries to find suitable ways and means to save them and reflects, "Being overwhelmed by craving and delusion, they have wrongly taken what is impermanent to be permanent, suffering to be happiness, nonself to be self and unpleasantness to be pleasantness. In what way shall I go to their rescue and get them out of suffering that arises owing to a cause."

While contemplating thus the Bodhisatta rightly discerns that forbearance (khantī) is the only means to set beings free from the bondage of existence. He does not show even the slightest anger to beings who have wronged him by cutting off his limbs, etc., He thought to himself, "As the result of demeritorious deeds done in my past existences I deserve the suffering now. Since I myself have done wrong previously, this suffering I deserve; I am the one who has started the wrongdoing." Thus he takes the offence of others upon himself.

It further occurs to him thus, "Only with forbearance will I be able to save them. If I do wrong to the wrongdoer I will become like him; I will not be different from him. How then can I liberate them from the woes of the cycle of births? Never can I.³⁶ Therefore, resting on the strength of forbearance which is the basis of all strengths, and taking their misdeeds upon myself, forbear I will; and with loving-kindness and compassion as guides, I shall fulfil the Perfections. Only by so doing will I attain Omniscient Buddhahood. Only by having attained Omniscient Buddhahood will I be able to save all beings from suffering that arises owing to a cause." He thus sees the correct situation as it stands.

Having observed thus, the Future Buddha fulfils his Perfections in a unique manner-the Perfections being ten ordinary ones, ten superior ones and ten most superior ones, thirty in all, known as Requisites of Enlightenment (Bodhisambhāra). The fulfilment of Perfections takes place in the above-mentioned four ways of development.³⁷

[ 18 ] Not living long in celestial abodes while fulfilling Perfections.

Before he attains the complete fulfilment of Perfections as in the existence of Vessantara³⁸, while still fulfilling Perfections, Sacrificing life and limb in charity and developing practices is a unique manner, a Future Buddha may be reborn frequently as a divine being of long life in consequence of his great meritorious deeds. But he chooses to cut short his life in the divine world by means of intentional death (adhimutti-maraṇa³⁹) because it is difficult to fulfil Perfections in those celestial abodes; accordingly, he is reborn in many a world of human beings where he can continue to fulfil Perfections.

Perfections compared with an ocean.

However enormous an ocean may be, it is finite in its extent, being limited by its bed at the bottom, by its surface at the top and encircled by cakkavāḷa mountains on all sides. On the other hand, the ocean of Perfection in alms-giving (dāna-pāramī) fulfilled and accumulated by the Future Buddha is infinite in its extent, its dimensions are limitless. With regard to this particular Perfection of almsgiving one cannot define its limits by the extent of external properties given away; by the amount of flesh or blood given away; or by the number of eyes or heads sacrificed. Likewise, one cannot speak of limits of other Perfections such as that of morality (sīla-pāramī). Thus in this comparison of the ocean with the ocean of Perfections, it should be noted that the former is limited in capacity however vast it may be whereas the latter is of infinite magnitude.

[ 19 ] Even though Future Buddhas feel intense pain they do not consider it as suffering.

At noon during the hot season a man may go down into a deep lake and take a bath there submerging himself, and while he is so doing he does not take note of the intense heat that descends from the sky. In the same way, the Future Buddha who suffused himself with great compassion, while seeking the welfare of beings, goes down into the ocean of Perfections and submerges himself there. Since he is suffused with great compassion, he does not feel even intense pains, caused by cutting off his limbs, etc., by evil cruel persons, as sufferings.

Long duration needed for fulfilment of Perfections.

A Future Buddha has to fulfil Perfections at least four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons from the time of his receiving the prophecy to the last existence when he achieves the completion of his fulffiment of Perfections (as in the existence of Vessantara). According to the Saṃyutta Nikāya, an aeon is a period of time during which, if the bones of a being were piled up, the size of that pile would become as high as a mountain. Therefore the number of births taken by the Future Buddha during the long period of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons would be larger than that of drops of water in a great ocean. Among these existences there is none that has not witnessed his fulfilment of Perfections and none that has passed in vain.

The accounts of fulfilment of Perfections by the Future Buddha as mentioned in the 550 Jātaka stories and in the stories of Cariyā-Piṭaka are just a few examples out of the total experiences which he had during the long period of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons. It is like a bowl of water taken out of a great ocean in order to sample its salty taste. The Buddha told these stories as illustrations as occasions arose and under appropriate circumstances. The number of stories he had told and the number of stories he had not may be compared to the water in a bowl and the water in a great ocean respectively.

[ 20 ] The Perfection of alms-giving fulfilled by the Buddha is sung in praise in the Jinālaṅkāra as follows:

So sāgare jaladhikaṃ rudhiraṃ adāsi
bhūmiṃ parājiya samaṃsamadāsi dānaṃ
meruppamāṇamadhikañca samoḷisīsaṃ
khe tārakādhikataraṃ nayanaṃ adāsi.⁴⁰

Aiming at Infinite Wisdom, and full of faith and fervour, that Bodhisatta had given in charity his ruby red blood in quantities much more than drops of water in the four oceans; aiming at Infinite Wisdom and full of faith and fervour, he had given in charity his naturally soft and tender flesh in quantities which would exceed the great earth that is 240,000 yojanās in extent; aiming at Infinite Wisdom and full of faith and fervour, his heads, with glittering crowns studded with nine gems he had given in charity, would pile up higher than Mount Meru; aiming at Infinite Wisdom and full of faith and fervour, he had given in charity his wondrous smiling eyes, dark as corundum or a beetle' s wing, more numerous than the stars and planets in the space of the universe⁴¹.

(2) Future Private Buddhas (a)called Pacceka--Bodhisattas have to fulfil their Perfections for two asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons. They cannot become Private Buddhas if their duration of fulfilment of Perfections is less than that number of aeon. Because as has been said in the chapter dealing with previous Bodhisattas, Enlightenment of a Private Buddha (Pacceka-Bodhi) cannot become mature before they have completed the full course of Perfections.

[ 21 ] (3) Future Disciples called Sāvaka-Bodhisattas are (a) Future Chief Disciples (Agga sāvaka), a pair of Disciples like the Venerable Sāriputta⁴² and the Venerable Moggalāna,⁴³ (b) Future Great Disciples (Mahā sāvaka), those like the eighty Great Disciples⁴⁴ in the lifetime of Buddha Gotama and (c) Future Ordinary Disciples⁴⁵ (Pakati sāvaka), all Arahants other than those mentioned above. Thus there are three categories of Future Disciples.

Of these three categories (a) Future Chief Disciples have to fulfil their Perfections for one asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons; (b) Future Great Disciples, for a hundred thousand aeons; and as for (c) Future Ordinary Disciples, duration of their fulfilment of Perfections is not directly given in the Texts. However, it is said in the Commentary and Sub-Commentary on the Pubbenivāsakathā (in the Mahāpadāna Sutta⁴⁶) that Great Disciples can remember their past lives for one hundred thousand aeons and Ordinary Disciples for less than that figure. Since fulfilment of Perfections takes place in every existence of theirs, it may be inferred that Future Ordinary Disciples have to fulfil Perfections not more than a hundred thousand aeons. The duration of their fulfilment of Perfections is thus indefinite: it may be one hundred aeons or one thousand aeons, etc., Āccording to some, it may be just one or two existences as illustrated by the story of a frog⁴⁷.

[ 22 ] 3. Buddha⁴⁸

As has been said before, after fulfilling their Perfections for their respective durations, the three types of Future Buddhas attain the Fourfold Knowledge of the Path (Maggañāṇa), which is understanding of the Four Noble Truths by himself without a teacher's help, as well as Omniscience (Sabbaññutañāṇa), which is understanding of all principles that are worthy of understanding. They acquire at the same time the special attributes of a Buddha that are infinite (ananta) and immeasurable (aparimeyya). Such attributes are so immense that, if a Buddha extols the attributes of another Buddha without touching on any other topic for an aeon, the aeon may come to an end, but the attributes will not. The Noble Person who has thus attained Enlightenment with no equal in the three worlds is called an Omniscient Buddha or a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One (Sammā-sambuddha).

After fulfilling [ 23 ] the necessary Perfections for two asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, a Private Buddha attains Enlightenment consisting of the InsightKnowledge of the Path which is understanding of the Four Noble Truths (Maggañāṇa) by himself without a teacher's help. But he does not achieve Omniscience and the Ten Powers (Dasabalañāṇa), etc., The Noble Person who has thus attained Enlightenment is called a Private Buddha or a Minor Buddha (Pacceka-Buddha).

After fulfilling the necessary Perfections for one asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons if he is a Future Chief Disciple, or a hundred thousand aeons if he is a Future Great Disciple, or a hundred aeons or a thousand aeons or any smaller number of aeons if he is a Future Ordinary Disciple, a Future Disciple attains Enlightenment, consisting of the Insight-Knowledge of the Path which is understanding of the Four Noble Truths (Sāvaka-Bodhiñāṇa), with the help of a teacher who is a Buddha. The Noble Person who has thus attained Enlightenment of a Disciple (Sāvaka-Bodhiñāṇa) is called an Enlightened Disciple (Sāvaka-Buddha); he may have the status of a Chief Disciple, a Great Disciple or an Ordinary Disciple.

4.Buddha-kicca

Among these Great Personages namely, Omniscient Buddhas, Private Buddhas and Enlightened Disciples, Omniscient Buddhas are called Tārayitu⁴⁸ Beings, the Most Supreme Ones, who, having themselves crossed over the ocean of Saṃsāra,⁴⁹ save others from its perils.

Private Buddhas are called Tarita⁵⁰ Beings, the Noble Ones who have crossed over the ocean of Saṃsāra on their own, but are unable to save others from its perils. To elaborate: Private Buddhas do not appear in an age when an Omniscient Buddha makes his appearance. They appear only in the intervening period between the lifetime of two Buddhas. An Omniscient Buddha realises for himself the Four Noble Truths without guidance and has the ability to teach and make others understand them. A Private Buddha also realises the Four Noble Truths on his own, but he is in no way able to teach and make others understand them. Having realised the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna (Paṭivedha)⁵¹ he is unable to recount his personal [ 24 ] experiences of these attainments because he lacks possession of appropriate terminology for these supramundane doctrines. Therefore a Private Buddha's knowledge of the Four Truths (Dhammābhisamaya)⁵² is compared by the commentators to a dumb person's dream or an ignorant peasant's experience of a city life for which he has no words to express. Private Buddhas (Tarita Beings) are thus those who have gone across Saṃsāra on their own but who are in no position to help others cross.

Private Buddhas may bestow monkhood on those who wish to become monks, and they may give them training in special practices of the holy life (Ābhisamācārika)⁵³ thus, "In this calm manner you should step forward, step backward, you should see, you should say," and so on, but they are not able to teach them how to differentiate between mind and matter (ñāma-rūpa), and how to view them in terms of their characteristics, namely, impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality, etc., so that they may reach the stage of realisation of the Path and Fruition. (The next paragraph is omitted.⁵⁴)

Noble Disciples who are Sāvaka-Buddhas, are called Tārita Beings as they have been helped cross the ocean of Saṃsāra and saved by Omniscient Buddhas. To illustrate Upatissa, the wandering ascetic, who was to become the Venerable Sāriputta, became established in the Path and Fruition of Sotāpatti, on hearing from the Venerable Assaji the following stanza:

Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā
tesaṃ hetuṃ tathāgato.⁵⁵

[ 25 ] From this account one would think Noble Disciples could be both those who have been saved (Tarita Beings) by others and those who have saved others (Tārayitu Beings ). But the teaching of a Buddha's disciple has its origin in the Buddha; it does not originate from the Disciple himself. He does not preach a sermon of his own without taking help and guidance from the teaching of the Buddha. Therefore such Disciples are to be called Tārita Beings, not Tārayitu Beings, as they can by no means realise the Four Noble Truths without a master; and their realisation of the Path and Fruition can take place only with the master's help and guidance.

As has been said, Private Buddhas and Noble Disciples are Tarita Beings and Tārita Beings respectively. Hence after their realisation of the Path and Fruition of Arahantship they entered into the stage of attainment of Fruition (Phala samāpatti) and attainment of Cessation (Nirodha samāpatti) for their own enjoyment of bliss of Peace, not working for the benefit of others. On the other hand, an Omniscient Buddha (Sammā-Sambuddha) would not remain working for his interest only. In fact, even at the time of fulfilling Perfections he resolves, "Having understood the Four Noble Truths I will make others understand the same (Buddho bodheyyaṃ)," and so on. Accordingly, he performs the five duties of a Buddha continuously day and night⁵⁶.

Because he has to perform the five duties of a Buddha, the Buddha takes rest just a little while after his day-meal each day. At night he rests only for one third of the last watch of the night. The remaining hours are spent attending to his five duties.

Only those Buddhas who are possessed of energy in the form of unique and supreme diligence (payatta), one of the glories (Bhaga) of a Buddha, are able to perform such duties. The performance of these duties is not the sphere of Private Buddhas and Disciples.

[ 26 ] Contemplation on rare appearance of a Buddha.

Profound contemplation on the following four matters concerning a Bodhisatta and a Buddha, namely,

(1) Bodhisatta (A Future Buddha),
(2) Bodhisatta-kicca (Duties of a Bodhisatta),
(3) Buddha (A Supremely Enlightened One), and
(4) Buddha-kicca (Daily duties of a Buddha)
leads one to the realisation that a Buddha's coming into being is a very rare phenomenon.

To elaborate: Numerous were those who aspired after Buddhahood when they had themselves seen or heard the powers and glories of Buddha Gotama after his Enlightenment, such as victory over the heretics bloated with conceit, performance of the Twin Miracle,⁵⁷ etc., Therefore when the Buddha descended to the city of Saṅkassa from Tāvatiṃsa where he had preached the Abhidhammā, human beings, Devas and Brahmas become visible to one another owing to Devorohana Miracle⁵⁸ performed by the Buddha. The Devorohana Miracle created a great expanse of space from Bhavagga⁵⁹ above to Avīci⁶⁰ below and throughout the eight directions of the unbounded universe. Beholding the Buddha's splendour that day, there was none among the people, who had gathered in a great mass, who did not aspire to Buddhahood. That all the people of this huge gathering wished for Buddhahood is mentioned in the story of Devorohana of the Dhammapada Commentary and in the explanations of the three kinds of miracles in the Jinālaṅkāra Sub-Commentary.

[ 27 ] Although the number of people aspiring after Buddhahood on seeing and hearing the Buddha's splendour was great, it is certain that those who were of little faith, wisdom, will and energy would have flinched if they had known the pertinent facts concerning the multiplicity of Perfections, fulfilment of these Perfections on a mightly scale, fulfilment of Perfections in every existence without interruption, fulfilment with seriousness and thoroughness fulfilment for a long time and fulfilment without regard to one's life. Only undaunted fulfilment of these awesome Perfections could lead to Enlightenment. Buddhahood is therefore said to be something hard to obtain (dullabha)⁶¹. The appearance of a Buddha is indeed a rare phenomenon.

Thus it is mentioned in the second Sutta of Ekapuggala Vagga (15), Eka-nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya:

Ekapuggalassa bhikkhave pātubhāvo dullabho 1okasmiṃ, katamassa ekapuggalassa, Tathāgatassa Arahato sammāsambuddhassa, imassa kho bhikkhave ekapuggalassa pātubhāvo dullabho lokasmiṃ.

Monks, in the world emergence of a being is very rare, Whose emergence? The Tathāgata, who is worthy of the highest veneration and who knows the truth with Perfect Self-Enlightenment, his emergence is indeed very rare.

The commentary on that Sutta, too, explains why so rare is the appearance of a Buddha. Of the ten Perfections with regard to almsgiving alone, [ 28 ] one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it just once; one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it twice, ten times, twenty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand, one hundred thousand times, or times numbering one crore, one hundred crores, one thousand crores, or one hundred thousand crores; similarly, one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it for one day, two days, ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand, one hundred thousand days or days numbering one hundred thousand crores, not after fulfilling it for one month, two months or months numbering one hundred thousand crores; not after fulfilling it even for one year, two years, or years numbering one hundred thousand crores; not after even for a great aeon, two great aeons, or great aeons numbering one hundred thousand crores, fulfilling it even one asaṅkhyeyya great aeons, two asaṅkhyeyya great aeons or three great asaṅkhyeyya aeons. (The same holds good in the case of other Perfections such as morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, forbearance, truth, resolution, lovingkindness and equanimity. ) In fact, the shortest duration for fulfilment of Perfections is four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons; it is only after fulfilling all Perfections for such a long time without interruption, and with profound reverence, devotion, seriousness and thoroughness can one become enlightened. That is the reason for the rare occurrence of an Omniscient Buddha.

The Sub-Commentary on the Sutta also emphasises that only when one has fulfilled Perfections for at least four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons can one become a Buddha. There is no other way. That is why the appearance of a Buddha is singularly rare.

No similes to illustrate Perfections with

The Future Buddha's existences during the period of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, between the life of Sumedha the Hermit and that of Vessantara. were more than the drops of water in the great ocean. The number of Perfections that had been fulfilled without interruption of a single existence was so great that its sum total cannot be estimated. There is practically nothing to compare with these Perfections. This is extolled in the Jinālaṅkāra:

Mahāsamudde jalabinduto 'pi,
tadantare jāti anappakā va
nirantaraṃ pūritapāramīnaṃ
kathaṃ pamāṇaṃ upamā kuhiṃvā.

[ 29 ] The births during the period
between the life of Sumedha and that of Vessantara
were more even than the drops of water in the great Ocean.
Who should know the measure of Perfections fulfilled without interruption?
Where is the simile to illustrate them with?

Besides, in the Sutta Pātheyya Commentary and its SubCommentary and the Jinālaṅkāra Sub-Commentary, where virtues of a hundred kinds of meritorious deeds (satapuññalakkhaṇa) are dealt with, it is stated:

Having grouped on one side all the meritorious deeds such as dāna, etc., done by an inestimable number of beings in the infinite universe during the period between the moment Sumedha resolved to achieve the goal of Buddhahood at the feet of Buddha Dipaṅkarā and the moment Prince Vessantara gave away his wife, Queen Maddi; and having grouped on the other side all the meritorious deeds done by the Future Buddha alone during the same length of time; the meritorious deeds in the former group would not come to even one hundredth, nay, one thousandth of those in the latter.

Hard to become even a Future Buddha.

Let alone becoming a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, the stage of development attained by Sumedha the Hermit as he received the prophecy of Buddhahood, can be reached only when one is endowed with eight factors.⁶² These are:

(1) Being a true human being.
(2) Being a true male person.
(3) Having fulfilled all conditions such as Perfections necessary for realisation of Arahantship in that very life.
[ 30 ] (4) Meeting with a living Buddha.
(5) Being an ascetic who believes in the law of Kamma (Kammavādī) or being a member of the community of bhikkhus during the dispensation of a Buddha.
(6) Being endowed with jhāna attainments.
(7) Intense efforts to develop one's Perfections without regard to one's life, and
(8) Wholesome desire strong enough to aspire after Buddhahood.

Only those who are endowed with these eight factors are able to wear the 'crown of prophecy; accordingly, let alone becoming a Buddha, it is very difficult to reach the stage of development like Sumedha the Hermit when he became eligible to receive the prophecy of Buddhahood.

When as a Future Buddha it is so difficult to receive the prophecy of Buddhahood, what can be said of Buddhahood that can be attained only by fulfilling Perfections by the fourfold mode of development⁶³ for at least four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons after receiving the prophecy? Truly hard it is to become a Buddha.

Since Buddhahood is so hard to attain, the 'moment' of a Buddha's emergence is also very hard to encounter. In this connection, the Atthaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya gives an enumeration of eight moments or existences in saṃsāra which are to be regarded as 'inopportune moment'⁶⁴ or unfortunate existences.' On the other hand, the moment of a Buddha's appearance is to be reckoned as an opportune moment of fortunate existence.

The eight unfortunate existences are:

(1) Existence in an abode of continuous intense suffering (niraya): it is an unfortunate existence because a being in this abode cannot perform any act of merit as he is all the time suffering from severe and painful tortures.
[ 31 ] (2) Existence in an animal abode: it is an unfortunate existence because a being of this abode living always in fear cannot perform any act of merit and is in no position even to perceive what is good or bad.
(3) Existence in a Peta⁶⁵ abode: it is an unfortunate existence because a being in this abode cannot perform any act of merit as it always feels the sensation of hotness and dryness and suffers from severe thirst and hunger.
(4) Existence in an abode of Brahmas who are devoid of consciousness (asaññasatta-bhūmi)⁶⁶: it is an unfortunate existence because a being in this abode cannot perform any act of merit nor listen to the Dhamma as he is not equipped with the faculty of hearing.
(5) Existence in a remote border region of the land: it is an unfortunate existence because such a region is not accessible to bhikkhus, bhikkhunīs and other disciples and devotees of a Buddha; it is a place of backward people with poor intelligence; a man living there cannot perform any act of merit as he had no chance to listen to the Dhamma though he possesses the faculty of hearing.
(6) Existence in which one holds a wrong view⁶⁷: it is an unfortunate existence because a man holding a wrong view cannot hear and practise the Dhamma though he may be living in the Middle Country where a Buddha appears and the continuous thunder⁶⁸ of the Buddha's Dhamma reverberates throughout the land.
[ 32 ] (7) Existence in which one is born deficient in sense faculties: it is an unfortunate existence because, in consequence of demeritorious deeds of past lives, his rebirth-consciousness is devoid of three wholesome root-conditons, viz., non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion (ahetuka-paṭisandhika); he is therefore deficient in sense faculties such as sight, hearing, etc., and is unable to see the noble ones and hear their teachings or practise the Dhamma as taught by them even if he may be living in the Middle Country⁶⁹ and have no staunchly held wrong view.
(8) Existence at a time when a Buddha does not appear: it is an unfortunate existence because at such a time a man cannot cultivate and practise the threefold training of morality (sīla), concentration of mind (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā) though he may be living in the Middle Country, possessing unimpaired sense faculties and holding the right view, that is, belief in the Law of Kamma.

Unlike these eight unfortunate existences (akkhaṇa), it may be noted that there is a ninth existence which is fortunate and called Buddhuppāda-navamakhaṇa because it is the existence in which a Buddha appears. Rebirth at such a time with unimpaired sense faculties and holding the right view enables one to cultivate and practise the Dhamma as taught by a Buddha. This ninth existence in which a Buddha appears (Buddhuppāda-navamakhaṇa) covers the lifetime of a Buddha when he is teaching the Dhamma and the whole period, throughout which his teaching flourishes.

Let it be a fruitful Buddhuppāda-navamakhaṇa.

Since good Buddhists of today who have gained existence as human beings with unimpaired sense faculties and the right view are living at a time when the Buddha's Dhamma is still flourishing, they have the rare opportunity of encountering Buddhuppāda-navamakhaṇa. Despite such a happy encounter, if they should neglect the meritorious practices of sīla, samādhi and pañña, they [ 33 ] will indeed miss the golden opportunity. Chances of rebirth in these eight unfortunate existence (akkhaṇa) are great and frequent whereas chances of rebirth in the dispensation of a Buddha are very remote. Only once in a long, long while of unlimited number of aeons does a Buddha emerge and the Buddhuppāda navama opportunity for a fortunate existence is indeed extremely difficult to obtain.

Good Buddhists of the present day possess two blessings: the first is the blessing of being born at a time when the Buddha's teaching, which is very difficult to come by, flourishes in this world, and the other is that of being born as a human being holding the right view. At such an opportune moment of Buddhuppāda navama, they ought to ponder seriously and rightly thus: "How should we get to know the Buddha's teaching? We should not miss this golden moment of Buddhuppāda navama. Should we miss it, we will suffer long and miserably in the four woeful states."

Bearing this in mind, as fortunate beings who encounter this rare opportunity of Buddhuppāda navamakhaṇa, may you be able to cultivate and develop the three noble practices of sīla, samādhi and paññā taught by the Buddha till the attainment of Arahantship.

End of Chapter on Rare Appearance of a Buddha.

1. A merchant of Sāvatthi and a staunch supporter of the Buddha and his Saṃgha. Anāthapiṇḍika means "one who feeds the destitute". His Personal name was Sudatta. He came to Rājagaha on business and f

3. He visited his friend Keniya who was then preparing to shower his lavish hospitality on the Buddha and his Order of bhikkhus, an incident similar to that of Anāthapiṇḍika. Both were filled with joy on hearing such a great name as Buddha. See Sela Sutta of the Majjhima- paṇṇāsa of the Majjhima Nikāya.

4. Literally, "Come bhikkhu!" It was the command made by the Buddha in order to bring a deserving person to the Order of the Buddha's followers in the yellow robe. Accordingly, it formed the oldest formula of admission to the Order.

5. Cha-satthara in Pāḷi simply meaning "six teachers." They were Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta and Sañjaya Belaṭṭha-putta. They were all non-Brahmanical teachers and contempÞraries of the Buddha but older in age.

6. The Path leading to the extinction of suffering, which forms the last of the Four Noble Truths is eightfold (See below, n.3). The Eightfold Path consists of (1) right understanding (sammā-diṭṭhi), (2) right thinking (sammā-saṅkappa), (3) right speech (sammā-vācā, (4) right bodily action (sammā-kammanta), (5) right livelihood (sammā-ājīva), (6) right effort (sammā-vāyāma), (7) right mindfulness (sammā-sati), and (8) right concentration (sammā-samādhi), The first two form wisdom (paññā), the second three. morality (sīla) and the last three, concentration (samādhi):. VbhA 416.

7. Sabbaññuta-ñāṇa is the compound of sabbaññuta and ñāṇa. The first word sabbaññuta itself means Omniscience. The word occurs in Nett 204; DA 1.99; VbhA 197. One who is endowed with Sabbaññuta or Sabbaññutañāṇa is Sabbaññū, the Omniscient One. "The Buddha is omniscient, not in the sense that he knows everything, but that he could know anything should he so desire." DPPN under Buddha.

8. They are the Truth of suffering (dukkha), of the Origin of suffering (dukkha-samudaya), of the Extinction of suffering (dukkha-nirodha), and of the Path leading to the Extinction of suffering (dukkha-nirodha-gāminīpaṭipadā).

9. "Future Perfect Buddhas" means "Future Perfectly Self-Enlightened Ones."

10. "Future Buddhas" from now on means "Future Perfect Buddhas" or "Future Perfectly Self-Enlightened Ones" unless otherwise stated.

11. Perfection: pāramī, also called pāramita, 'Completeness' and 'highest state' are also given as meanings of the Pāḷī word in PED. The Perfections are ten in number which are "the perfect exercise of the ten principal virtues of a Bodhisatta." PED. For details see the Anudīpanī.

12. Asaṅkhyeyya (asaṅkheyya) literally means 'innumerable.' Some take it to be the figure one followed by 140 zeros, i.e. 1014. Kacc. 395; Abhidh. 474-6. Warren translates the word as 'immensity.' Buddhism in Translation, p. 5.

13. Aeon: kappa. which may also be translated 'world cycle.' A kappa has an age of enormous length. For details see the Anudīpanī.

14. Commentary on the first Khagga-visana Sutta of the Sutta Nipāta.

15. Dated A.D. 1491 and composed when the poet was 38, according to the Introduction, Pāramīdawgan Pyo, Rangoon 1953. It is the best known work and masterpiece of the poet. Preface, ibid.

16. A monk poet and literary genius (A.D. 1453-1520) who was born in a village near Taungdwingyi but who made his name in the city of Ava.

17. But what is mentioned in the epic with regard to the three types of Future Buddhas is apparently based on commentrial statements. It is interesting to note that, in the author's view, the names Paññādhika, etc., belong only to Bodhisattas, but not to Buddhas.

18. Fault of confusion; sankara-dosa. The word is also found in Sanskrit which means in rhetoric the confusion or blending together or metaphors which ought to be kept distinct. SED.

19. "One who already during a given explanation comes to penetrate the truth." Buddhist Dictionary.

20. "One who realizes the truth after Explanation." This is said of one who realizes the truth only after detailed explanation of that which has already been taught him in a concise form.

21. "Requiring Guidance" is said of a person who through advice and questioning, through wise consideration, and through frequenting nobleminded friends, having intercourse with them, assoeiating with them, gradually comes to penetrate the truth.

22. They are (1) Psychic Powers (Iddhi-vidha), (2) Divine Ear (dibbasota), (3) Penetration of others' mind (citta-pariya-ñaṇa or cetopariya), (4) Divine Eye (dibba-cakkhu), (5) Rememberance of former existences (pubbenivāsānussati or pubbenivāsa), and (6) Extinction of 'influxes' (āsavakkhaya). The first five being mundane can be attained through intense mental concentration (samādhi) whereas the last being supramundane can be attained only through penetrating insight (Vipassanā).

23. They are (1) Analytical Knowledge of Meaning (attha), (2) of causal relations (dhamma), (3) of language (nirutti) and (4) sharp intellect (patibhāna) which can define the above three analytical knowledges.

24. Famous for his most daring generosity. From the time he was made king at the age of sixteen by his father he gave alms each day costing him six hundred thousand pieces of money. Besides, he gave his white elephant, which had the power of causing rain, to the draught-stricken citizens of Jetuttara against the will of his own people. He was therefore banished to Vaṇkagiri, and while in exile he gave his son and daughter to Jujaka, an old brahmin who wanted to use them as slaves; he also gave his wife to Sakka who came under the disguise of a brahmin to ask for her as a test of his generosity. His existence is said to be the last of the Bodhisatta before he was reborn in Tusitā, the third highest abode of celestial beings.

25. Conducive to arising of Enlightenment: Bodhiparipācaka: literally, "That which makes Enlightenment ripen."

26. Like Buddha Dīpaṅkarā who prophesied the attainment of Buddhahood by Sumedhā.

27. Buddha-Vagga vol.4. part.1.

28. See Hard to become even a Future Buddha.

29. An act of resolution to become a Buddha: abhiñihāra: the literal meaning of the word given by the author is directing one's mind towards attainment of Buddhahood.

30. Verse 57, Sumedha-kathā, Buddhavaṃsa.

31. Meaning Buddha Dīpaṅkara.

32. This Abhidhammā term in Pāḷi is Mahāusala-cittuppāda.

33. "Catasso hi bodhisambhāresu bhāvanā sabbasambhāra-bhāvanā nirantara-bhāvanā cirakāla-bhāvanā sakkacca-bhāvanā cā ti."

34. Perfections, sacrifices and conduct: Pāramī-Cāga-Cariya: Pāramīs are ten in number. Cāga here refers to Mapariciccāga, great offerings or abandonings .of extraordinary nature, which are five kinds of relinquishing of wealth, of children, of wife, of limbs and of life. For details of Pāramī and Cāga, see the Anudīpanī. Cariya literally means 'conduct, behaviour, or practice' cultivated for the welfare of both oneself and others. Cariya is of three categories namely, (1) lokattha-cariya, practice for the benefit of all beings. (2) ñātattha-cariya, practice for the benefit of one's own kith and kin, and (3) Buddhattha-cariya, practice and efforts to achieve Enlightenment.

35. With seriousness and thoroughness; sakkacca: usually taken to be respect or reverence, is rendered here as seriousness and thoroughness. See the Anudīpanī for full interpretation of sakkacca under sakkacca-dāna in types of dāna in group of twos.

36. The author mentions that the above exposition of the moral qualities a Future Buddha is drawn from Bodhisambhāra-vannanā of the Jinalaṅkāra Ṭīkā.

37. See Long duration needed for fulfilment of Perfections.

38. Future Buddha Gotama as King of Jetuttara, the last rebirth in the human world bcfore the Bodhisatta appeared again as Prince Siddhattha.

39. See adhimutti-marana in the Anudīpanī.

40. Verse 31 under VI. Bodhisambhārā-dīpanī-gāthā.

41. This is the translation of the Burmese version of the Pāḷi verse. Moved by the awe-inspiring sacrifices of the Bodhisatta, the illustrious author has rendered it in a most ornate language with appropriate elaborations. Incidentally it is a good example of Pāḷi-Myanma nissaya translation.

42. His name prior to his enlightenment was Upatissa.

43. His name prior to his enlightenment was Kolita.,

44. The enumeration of the eighty Great Disciples begins with the Venerable Koṇḍañña and ends with the Venerabe Piṅgiya.

45. Disciples other than the Chief Disciples and Great Disciples of the Master are Ordinary Disciples. Vis Tīkā. II, 45.

46. The fourteenth Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It deals elaborately with the life of Buddha Vipassī, the first of the seven Buddhas preceding Buddha Gotama. Because it contains the largest number of bhānavāras or sections, it came to be known as "King of Suttas" in the comṃentaries.

47. It so happened that the frog was reborn as a deva after hearing the voice of the Buddha who was delivering a sermon. As a deva he visited the Buddha and became a 'stream-winner' as a consequence of hearing the Dhamma from the Buddha. For details see the story of Manduka in the Vimāna-vatthu.

48. The Dasa-Nipāta of tile Añguttara Nikāya enumerates the Ten Powers (Dasabalañāṇa) as follows: (1) Thānāṭṭhāna ñāṇa, knowledge according to reality as to the possible as possible and the impossible as the impossible, (2) Kammavipāka ñāṇa, knowledge of the result of the past. present and future actions, (3) Sabbatthagāminī patipadā ñāṇa, knowledge of the path leading to the welfare of all, (4) Anekadhātu Nānādhātu lokañāṇa, knowledge of the world with its many different elements, (5) Nānādhimuttikata ñāṇa, knowledge of the different inclinations of beings, (6) Indiriya paropariyatta ñana, knowledge of the lower and higher faculties of beings, (7) Jhānādi Samkilesa Vodānavuṭṭhāna ñāṇa. knowledge of the defilements, purity and rising with regard to Jhāna,concentration, attainments etc., (8) Pubbenivāsa ñāṇa, knowledge of remembering many former births, (9) Cutūapata ñāṇa, or Dibbacakkhu ñāṇa, knowledge of perceiving with the divine eye how beings vanish and re-appear according to their actions (Kamma), and (10) Āsavakkhaya ñāṇa, knowledge of the extinction of all moral intoxicants (impurities that befuddle the mind) i.e. Arahattamagga ñāṇa.

48. Tārayitu, literally, "one who makes others cross" and helps them through.

49. Saṃsāra, literally, moving about continuously from one life to another i.e. cycle of births.

50. Tarita, Grammatically speaking, it is a Past Participle form of taratī meaning to cross or to pass over.

51. Paṭivedha, literally, penetration. It is one of the three aspects of the Buddha's Teaching, the first two being pariyatti and paṭipatti, learning of the scriptures and engagement in practices respectively.

52. Dhammābhisamaya, literally, truth-realisation, which is Penetration of the Four Noble Truths according to the commentaries.

53. Ābhisamācārika "belonging to the practice of the lesser ethics, according to PED; "the minor precept," according to CPD.

54. The next paragraph in the original text deals with the Uposatha services observed by Pacceka Buddhas. This account is too technical for lay readers, and we have thus omitted it from our translation.

55. This is only half of the gatha, and the remaining two lines read:

Tesañ ca yo nirodho
evaṃ vādī mahāsamano
56. Here the author asks to see details of the five duties of a Buddha in the exposition on the attributes of Bhagavā in the Gotama-Buddhavaṃsa in a later volume.
57. It is a well known miracle displaying both fire and water issuing alternately from the Buddha's body.
58. Devorohana means "Descent from the abode of gods," i.e., the Buddha's descent therefrom. The miracle that took place on that occasion is here mentioned as Devorohana Miracle, the most notable feature of which was seeing through all the universes from one end to another, from top to bottom and vice versa. There was nothing to obstruct one's sight: everybody, whether human or divine, was capable of seeing one another and capable of being seen by one another.
59. The highest abode of Brahmas.
60. The lowest abode of intense sufferings.
61. Dullabha, lit., hard to obtain. There are five rare phenomena hard to encounter, namely, (1) Buddhuppāda, appearance of a Buddha, (2) manussattabhāva, gaining rebirth as a human being, (3) saddhāsampattibhāva, being endowed with faith in the Triple Gem and the Law of Kamma, (4) pabbajitabhāva. becoming a member of the community of bhikkhus, and (5) sadhammasavana, getting opportunity of hearing the teaching of a Buddha.
62. Detail of these eight factors will be given at the end of the chapter on Perfections.
63. See Page
64. Inopportune moment: akkhana, literally, 'wrong moment.'
65. Usually translated "dead, departed" or "the departed spirit."
66. With regard to this fourth akkhaṇa, the author says that only asaññasatta-bhumi is mentioned in the Aṭṭhaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Commentary. In the Jinālaṅkāra Sub-Commentary, however, immaterial abode (arūpa-bhūmi) is also included in this akkhaṇa. The reasons for its exclusion from the Anguttara Nikāya are given by the author in the next paragraph. But as they are too technical we have omitted the paragraph in our translation.
67. Wrong view: niyata-micchādiṭṭhi, literally, a staunchly held wrong view.
68. Thunder: nada, literally. 'roar,' such as that of a lion.
69. The country in Central India and the birthplace of men of superior quality including Buddhas.

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SUMEDHĀ THE BRAHMIN.

[ 34 ] This discourse on Buddhavaṃsa or the History of the Lives of the Buddhas was delivered by the Buddha to his kinsmen, the Sakyas, on his first visit to the city of Kapilavatthu after his enlightenment. The Sakya elders and relatives, in their

At the time of the First Council, the great elders, the Venerable Mahā Kassapa, the Venerable Ānanda, etc., desiring to recite the full discourse on Buddhavaṃsa together with introductions,³ prescribed a set way of recitation (vacanāimagga) beginning with the verse "Brahmā ca Iokādhipati Sahampati..."

Here, however, the narration will begin with the story of Sumedha the Brahmin as told by the Buddha at the request of the Venerable Sāriputta.

[ 35 ] Four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons ago there flourished the city of Amaravatī. A well-planned city in all respects, it was beautiful and pleasant. Surrounded by verdant and delightful open spaces, abounding in shades and springs, well-stocked with food and provisions and rich in assorted goods for people's enjoyment, the city warmed the hearts of divine and human beings.

The city was ever resounding with ten kinds of sounds or noises such as the noises of elephants, of horses, of chariots, the sounds of big drums, of short drums, of harps, of singing, of conch shells, of clappers and of invitations to feasts. (Other cities were full of unpleasant noises and alarming cries.)⁴

The city was endowed with all characteristics of a metropolis. There was no scarcity of trades and crafts for earning a living. It was rich in seven kinds of treasures, namely: diamonds, gold, silver, cat's eyes, pearls, emeralds and coral. It was crowded with foreign visitors. Provided with everything as in a celestial realm, it was the abode of a powerful people enjoying the benefits of meritorious deeds.

Sumedha the Future Buddha.

There lived in the city of Amaravati a Brahmin named Sumedha⁵. His mother was a descendant from a long line of Brahmin families; so was his father. He was therefore a pure Brahmin by birth from both paternal and maternal sides. He was born of a virtuous healthy mother. He could not be treated with contempt on account of his birth by saying: "This man is of low birth that goes back to seven generations of his ancestors." He was not a man to be abused or despised. In fact, he was a man of true Brahmin blood with very good looks that charmed everyone.

[ 36 ] As regards his wealth; he had treasures in store worth many crores and abundant grain and other commodities for daily use. He had studied the three Vedas of Iru, Yaju and Sāma, and being expert in these texts could recite them flawlessly. Effortlessly he became well versed in (1) Nighandu or glossary that explains various terms, (2) Ketubha or rhetoric which is concerned with literary works and which explains various literary ornamentations of learned authors, (3) Vyākarana (Akkharapabheda) or grammar that deals with analysis of words and explains various grammatical rules and such terms as alphabet, consonant, etc., (4) Itihasa (also called Purana) which constitutes the fifth Veda and which tells of legends and ancient tales.⁶

He was equally well-versed in Lokayata, a philosophical work, which discourages acts of merit and favours actions which prolong saṃsara and in works dealing with various characteristics of great men such as Future Buddhas, Future Private Buddhas, etc., He was also an accomplished teacher in Brahmanical lore that had been taught by generation after generation of teachers.

The parents of Sumedha the Wise passed away while he was still young. Then the family treasurer, bringing the list of riches, opened the treasure-house full of gold, silver, rubies, pearls, etc., and said, "Young master, this much is the wealth that has come down from your mother's side and this much from your father's, and this much from your ancestors." He informed him of his wealth that had belonged to seven generations of his ancestors, and saying: "Do as you wish with these riches," handed them over to him.

1. The Pāḷi word is yamaka-pāṭihāriya, which Malalasekera also calls "The miracle of the double appearances." He explains: "it consisted in the appearance of phenomena of opposite character in

2. The other Chief Disciple, the Venerable Moggalāna, had the honour of occupying a similar seat on the immediate left of the Buddha.

3. The author gives details of the introduction in the chapter on Gotama Buddhavaṃsa in Volume II.

4. Here the author gives some examples of unpleasant noises and alarming cries to be heard in other cities. We have omitted them from our translation. In connection'with the ten sounds see the Anudīpani.

5. The author says Sumedha was so called "because he was endowed with praiseworthy wisdom."

6. The author says in the paragraph following this that "Itihāsa as the fifth Veda" means it is the fifth in the enumeration of sciences which according to the Canon should run (1) Three Vedas, (2) Nighandu, (3) Keṭubha (4) Vyākarana and (5) Itihāsa. According to the Sīlakkhanda Commentary, by adding Athabbana, the Vedas become four in number and hence Itihāsa, which comes after them is the fifth.

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RENUNCIATON OF SUMEDHA.

[ 37 ] One day he went up to the upper terrace of his mansion and sitting crosslegged in solitude, thought as follows:

"Miserable is birth in a new existence; so is destruction of the body; miserable also it is to die in delusion oppressed and overpowered by old age.
Being subject to birth, old age and sickness, I will seek Nibbāna where old age, death and fear are extinct."
"Wonderful it would be if I could abandon this body of mine without any regard for it as it is full of putrid things such as urine, excreta, pus, blood, the bile, phlegm, saliva, mucus. etc.
Surely there must be a path leading to the peaceful Nibbāna. It cannot be otherwise. I will seek that good Path to Nibbāna so that I shall be liberated from the bondage of life."
"For example, just as when there is misery (dukkha) there also in this world is happiness (sukha); even so when there is the round of existence which is the arising of dukkha there should also be Nibbāna which is the cessation of dukkha.
Again, just as when there is heat there also is cold; even so when there are the three fires of passion, hate and delusion, there should also be Nibbāna which is the extinction of these three fires."
Again, just as when there is demeritoriousness, there is also meritoriousness; even so when there is rebirth, there should also be Nibbāna where potential for rebirth is exhausted.

After these thoughts had occurred to him, he went on thinking profoundly.

[ 38 ] "For example, a man who has fallen into a pit of excreta or who is besmeared with filth sees from a distance a clear pond adorned with five kinds of lotus; if in spite of seeing it he does not find out the right way to reach the pond, it is not the fault of the pond, but of the man himself; in the same way, there exists a big pond of Deathless Nibbāna where one could wash off one's mental defilements, and if one does not search for that big pond of Nibbāna, it is not the fault of Nibbāna.

"Again, if a man surrounded by enemies does not try to flee although there is an escape route for him, it is not the fault of the route; in the same way, if a man who is besieged by enemies in the form of mental defilements does not wish to run away although there exists so clearly the big road to the golden city of Nibbāna where one is safe from enemies in the form of mental defilements, it is not the fault of that big road.

Again, if a man inflicted with a disease does not get it cured although there is an efficient-doctor, the doctor is not to blame; in the same way, if one suffering painfully from diseases of mental defilements does not look for a master for their cure though there exists one who is skilled in removing these mental defilements, the master is not to blame."""

After thinking thus he contemplated further to be rid of his body:

"Just as a man burdened with the dead body of an animal hung round his neck would get rid of the loathesome carcass and freely and happily go about wherever he likes, even so I too will go to the city of Nibbāna abandoning this putrid body of mine which is but a collection of various worms and foul things.

Again, just as people who have voided their excreta at a lavatory leave them with never a look behind, even so I will go to the city of Nibbāna after leaving behind this body full of various worms and foul things."

[ 39 ] "Again, just as the owners of an old, ruined, decaying and leaking boat abandon it in disgust, even so I too will go to the city of Nibbāna after abandoning this body, from the nine orifices of which, filthy things ooze out incessantly.

Again, just as a man carrying treasures who happens to be travelling in company with robbers, leaves them and flees to safety when he sees the danger of being robbed of his treasures, even so, since the thought of being robbed of my treasures of meritorious deeds, always makes me afraid, I will abandon this body of mine that is like a chief robber¹ and will go seeking the road to Nibbāna, which can undoubtedly give me security and happiness..

The great alms-giving.

After contemplating thus on renunciation in the light of these similes, once again it occurred to Sumedha the Wise: "Having amassed this much of wealth, my father, grandfather and other kinsmen of mine of seven generations were unable to take even a single coin with them when they passed away. But I should find some means of taking this wealth with me up to Nibbāna². Then he went to the king and said, "Your Majesty, since my mind is obsessed with a great dread of the dangers and sufferings springing from such things as birth, old age. etc., I am going to leave the household life and become a recluse. I have wealth worth several crores. Please take possession of it."

I do not desire your wealth. You may dispose of it in any way you wish, replied the king. "Very well, Your Majesty," said Sumedha the Wise and with the [ 40 ] beating of the mighty drum he had it proclaimed all over the city of Amaravati: "Let those who want my riches come and take them." And he gave away his wealth in a great alms-giving to all without distinction of status and whether they be destitutes or otherwise.

The renunciation.

After thus performing a great act of charity Sumedha the Wise, the Future Buddha, renounced the world and left for the Himalayas with an intention to reach Dhammika mountain on that very day. The Sakka³ seeing him approach the Himalayas after renunciation summoned Vissukamma and said: "Go, Vissukamma.⁴ There is Sumedha the Wise who has renounced the world intending to become a recluse. Have a residence made ready for him."

Very well, Lord, said Vissukamma in answer to the Sakka's command. He then marked out a delightful enclosure as a hermitage, created in it a well-protected hut with a roof of leaves and a pleasant, faultless walkway.

[The author explains here that the walkway is fautless because it was free from five defects, namely, (1) having uneven, rugged ground, (2) having trees on the walkway, (3) being covered with shrubs and bushes, (4) being too narrow, and (5) being too wide.

[The author then describes the walkway and gives its measurement: sixty cubits long, it consists of three lanes the main one with two narrower ones on both sides. The main walkway was one a half cubits wide, and each of the two flankers one cubit wide. The whole walkway was on even ground strewn with white sand. For details of the five defects see the Anudīpanī.

[ 41 ] [The author further enumerates the eight sources of comfort which a good hermitage such as the one created by Vissukamma would bring to a recluse.

These eight sources of comfort⁵ are:

(1) Non-hoarding of wealth and grains.
(2) Searching for blameless food,
(3) Enjoing peaceful food only,
(4) Being free from worries and distress due to heavy burden of taxation and confistication of one's property,
(5) Being not attached to articles of ware, ornaments, etc.
(6) Feeling secure against robbers,
(7) Being not associated with kings and ministers, and
(8) Being free to move to all four quarters.

[In addition to these eight, the author says that the hermitage created by Vissukamma was of the kind. that facilitated ascetic practices for its residents and helped them gain Vipassanā-Insight into the true nature of things ( impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality ) without much difficulty. It had chambers. caves, tunnels, trees bearing flowers and fruits, and a pond of sweet and clear water. It was a secluded place free from disturbances of wild beasts and raucous noises of birds.

[The leaf-hut contained various requisites of an ascetic such as a headdress, robes, a tripod, a water jug and so on. Vissukamma then wrote on the inner wall of the hut an inscription reading "whoever wishes to become an ascetic may make use of these requisites." and he went back- to his divine abode. ]

[ 42 ] Beginning of ascetic life.

Reaching the foothills of the Himalayas, Sumedha the Wise walked along the hills and ravines and looked for a suitable place where he could live comfortably. There at a river bend in the region of Mt. Dhammika he saw the delighful hermitage created by Vissukamma at the instance of Sakka. He then went slowly to the edge of the walkway, but on seeing no footprints he thought: "Surely, the residents of this hermitage must be taking a rest in the leaf-hut after their tiring alms-round in the neighbouring villages": having thought thus he waited for a while.

Seeing no signs of habitation after a fairly long time, it occurred to him, "I have waited long enough. I should now investigate to see whether there are any accupants or not." He opened the door and entered the leaf-hut. Looking here and there he saw the inscription on the wall and thought: "These requisites are befitting requisites for me. I will use them and become an ascetic." Having made up his mind and after reflecting on the nine disadvantages of a lay man's dress and the twelve advantages of a fibre-robe he discarded the dress he was in and donned the robe⁶.

Leaving the hut and approaching the foot of trees.

When he had taken off his fine dress Sumedha the Wise took the fibre-robe red like a cluster of anoja flowers. He found the robe folded and placed for ready use on a bamboo peg; he wore it round the waist. On top of it he put on another fibre-robe, which had the colour of gold. He also placed on his left shoulder the hide, complete with hoofs, of a black antelope, which was like a bed of punnāga flowers. He put the headdress on his top knot and fastened it with an ivory hairpin. Taking a curved carrying yoke he hung at one end of it a string net with knots which were like pearls into which he placed the water jug which was of the colour of coral; at the other end of the yoke were hung a long hook [ 43 ] (used for gathering fruits from trees ), a basket, a wooden tripod, etc., He then shouldered the yoke that now carried the full equipment of an ascetic. Taking hold of a walking stick with his right hand, he went out of the hut. While walking back and forth along the walkway, sixty cubits long, he surveyed himself in his new garb and felt exultant with the thought:

"My heart's desire has been completely fulfilled.
Splendid indeed is my ascetic life."
"The ascetic life has been praised by all wise men, such as Buddhas and Private Buddhas.
The bondage of household life has been abandoned."
"I have come safely out of the realm of worldly pleasures.
I have entered upon the noble life of an ascetic."
"I will cultivate and practise the holy life.
Endeavour will I to attain the benefits of holy practices."""

We then put down the carrying yoke from his shoulder, and sitting gracefully like a golden image on the bean-coloured stone slab in the middle of the walkway, he passed the daytime there.

When evening came he entered the hut, and lying on the wooden plank by the side of a cane couch he used robes as blankets and went to sleep. When he woke up early in the morning, he reflected on the reasons and circumstances of his being there:

"Having seen the demerits of the household life, and having given up incomparable wealth and unlimited resources and retinue, I have entered the forest and become an ascetic desiring to seek meritoriousness that will liberate me from the snares of sensuality. From today onewards. I should not be negligent. There are these three categories of wrong thoughts, namely, thought based on desire (kāma-vitakkn) directed to sense-pleasures; thought based on ill-will (vyāpāda-vitakka) directed to killing, destroying, harming; thought based on cruelty [ 44 ](vihiṃsa-vitakka) directed to causing harm and injury to others. These thoughts may be likened to wild flies which feed on those who are negligent and who abandon the practice of mental detachment from defilements and physical detachment from sense-pleasures. Now is the time for me to devote myself totally to the practice of detachment (paviveka).

True, seeing the defects of household life that obstruct, hinder and harm meritorious practices, I have renounced the world. This hut of leaves is indeed delightful. This fine levelled ground is bright yellow like a ripe bael fruit. The walls are silvery white. The leaves of the roof are beautifully red like the colour of a pigeon's foot. The couch made of cane bears the patterns of a vareigated bedspread. The dwelling place is very comfortable to live in. I do not think that the luxuries of my former residence can excel the comfort provided by this hut."" Reflecting thus he discerned the eight disadvantages of a leaf-hut and the ten advantnges of the foot of trees⁷. Consequently, on that very day he abandoned the hut and approached the foot of trees that are endowed with ten virtues."""

Cultivation the practices of meditation while living on fruits.

The following morning he entered the nearby village for alms-food. The villagers made a great effort to offer him choice food. After finishing his meal he went back to the enclosure in the forest and sat down thinking:

I became an ascetic not because I lacked food and nourishment. Delicacies tend to boost one's pride and arrogance of being a man. There is no end to the trouble that arises from the necessity of sustaining one's life with food. It would be good if I should abstain from food made from cultivated grains and live only on the fruits that fall from trees.

[ 45 ] From that moment he lived only on fruits that fell from trees. Without lying down at all, he made strenuous efforts to meditate incessantly only in the three postures of sitting. standing and walking, and at the end of seven days, he achieved the Eight Attainments ( the eight mundane jhānas) and the Five Higher Spiritual Powers (abhiñña).

The Buddhavaṃsa Text narrating the story from the time Sumedha the Wise, the Future Buddha, performed the act of great charity up to the time he became an ascetic and achieved the Higher Spiritual Powers and jhānas, reads:

(1) Evā haṃ cintayitvāna 'nekakoṭisatam dhanaṃ.

nāthānāthānaṃ datvāna himavantaṃ upagamiṃ.

(2) Himavantassāvidūre dhammiko nāma pabbato

assamo sukato mahyam pannasālā sumāpitā.

(3) Caṅkamaṃ tattha māpesiṃ pañca dosavivajjitaṃ

atthaguna-samupetaṃ abhinññābalaṃ āhaṃ.

(4) Sātakaṃ pajahaṃ tattha navadosaṃ upāgataṃ

vākaīraṃ nivāsesaṃ dvādasagunaṃ upagataṃ.

(5) Aṭṭha asaṃākinnaṃ pajahaṃ paṇṇasālakam

upāgamaṃ rukkhamūlaṃ gune dasahupāgataṃ.

(6) Vāpitaṃ ropitaṃ dhaññaṃ pajahaṃ niravasesato

aneka guna-sampannaṃ pavattaphalaṃ ādiyaṃ.

(7) Tatthappadhānaṃ padahaṃ nisajjatthānacaṅkame

abbhantaramhi sattāhe abhiññābala-pāpuniṃ.

(1) Thus, Sāriputta, I, Sumedha the Future Buddha,
contemplating thus to renounce the world,
gave many crores of wealth to rich and poor alike,
and made my way to the Himalayas.

[ 46 ] (2) Not far from the Himalayas,
was a mountain named Dhammika
(because it was the place
where noble persons of ancient time
practised Dhamma).
In that region of Dhammika,
I made a pleasant enclosure
and created a fine hut of leaves⁸.

(3) There in the region of Mount Dhammika
I created a walkway free of the five defects.
I created a hermitage that enabled one
to possess the eight kinds of comfort of a recluse.
After becoming an ascetic there I began to develop the practices
of concentration and Insight-meditation to gain the Five Higher Spiritual Powers
and the Eight Attainments.

(4) I discarded the dress I had worn
that had nine defects;
I then put on the fibre-robe that possessed twelve virtues.

(5) I abandoned the hut of leaves
that suffered from eight defects.
I approached the foot of trees
that possessed ten virtues.

[ 47 ] (6) I totally abstained from the food that came of grain sown and grown. I took fruits that fell from trees and that possessed many virtues.

(7) (Without lying down,) in the three postures of sitting, standing and walking, I made strenuous efforts at meditation there at the hermitage. Within seven days I attained the Five Higher Spiritual Powers.

End of Chapter on Renunciation of Sumedha

1. The author explains: When one thinks unwisely and is by instigated greed and hate, this body turns into a robber who takes life, a robber who takes things not given, etc., and plunders all the tre

2. He could not of course carry his wealth bodily with him to Nibbāna. But Sumedha is referring here to beneficial results that would accrue from his meritorious deeds of giving away his wealth in charity.

3. Sakka: the name of "King of the Devas." He is known by many other names including Vāsava and Sujampati. He rules over Devas in Tāvatiṃsa which is supposed to be the second lowest of the six celestial abodes. There are many stories which tell of his help rendered to Bodhisattas and other noble persons.

4. He is Sakka's chief architect and builder who built under Sakka's orders the hermitages for the Bodhisatta in other existences as well.

5. Eight sources of comfort, samaṇasukha, see the Anudipanī for comparison with eight blessinga of a recluse, samaṇabhadra.

6. For the nine disadvantages of a lay man's dress and the twelve significance of a advantages of a fibre-robe see the Anudīpanī, For the significance of a fibre-robe, etc., too, see the same.

7. See "the eight disadvantages of a leaf-hut and the ten virtues of the foot of trees" in the Anudīpanī.

8. Here the author explains: In this connection, as has been said before, the hermitage, the hut of leaves, the walkway, etc., were all created by Vissukamma under Sakka's orders. Nevertheless, the Buddha, referring to the power's accrued from his own meritorious deeds while as Sumedha, said, "I made a pleasant enclosure in the forest and created a fine hut," etc., as though he himself had done them all. In reality, it should be noted without doubt that they were not constructed by Sumedha the Hermit, but by Vissukamma at the command of Sakka

VOLUME_1
PART_1
CHAPTER_5

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THE PROPHECY.

[ 48 ] By the time Sumedha the Hermit had become accomplished in practices of asceticism following the teachings of noble asetics and had gained jhānas and Higher Spiritual Powers as has been stated, there appeared in Buddha Dīpaṅkara preached the First Sermon³ to a hundred thousand crores of devas and human beings at Sunandarāma. After that he set out on a journey with an intention of removing mental defilements of beings by pouring on them the purifying water of Dhamma like the heavy rain that falls. on all four continents.

Then with four hundred thousand Arahants, he came to the city of Rammavatī and stayed at Sudassana Monastery. Meanwhile Sumedha was enjoying the bliss of jhānas in the forest and completely unaware of the appearance of Buddha Dīpaṅkara in the world.

[ 49 ] On hearing the Buddha's arrival at Sudassana Monastery, the citizens of Rammāvatī, after their morning meal, carried excellent gifts for medicinal use such as butter, ghee, etc., as well as flowers and scents and went to the presence of the Buddha. Having paid obeisance to the Buddha and honoured him with flowers, scents, etc., they sat down at suitable places and listened to the Buddha's most delectable sermon. At the end of the sermon, they invited the Buddha together with his disciples, the Order of bhikkhus, to the morrow's meal. and having circumambulated the Buddha in salutation, they left the monastery.

Elaborate preparations to receive Buddha Dipaṅkara and his company.

The next day saw the citizen of Rammāvatī preparing elaborately for the "incomparably great alms-giving" (asadisa-mahādāna). A pavilion was set up; pure, tender blue lotuses were strewn in the pavilion; the air was refreshened with four kinds of perfume; sweet smelling flowers made from rice-flakes were scattered; pots of cool sweet water were covered with emerald-green banana leaves and placed at the four corners of the pavilion; a canopy decorated with stars of gold, silver and ruby was fixed to the ceiling of the pavilion; scented flowers and jewel like blooms formed into garlands and festoons were hung here and there. When such necessary decorations of the pavilion were complete, the citizens started to make the city clean and tidy. On both sides of the main road were placed water-pots, flowers, banana plants complete with [ 50 ] bunches of fruit, flags, banners and streamers were hung up; decorative screens were put up at suitable places.

When necessary preparations had thus been made in the city, the citizens attended to mending of the road which the Buddha would take in entering the city. With earth they filled holes and breaches caused by floods and levelled the uneven muddy ground. They also covered the road with pearl-white sand, strewed it with flowers of rice-flakes and placed banana plants complete with bunches of fruit along the route. Thus they made all the arrangements and preparations for the ceremony of almsgiving.

At that time Sumedha the Hermit levitated from his hermitage and while travelling through space saw the citizens of Rammavatī engaging cheerfully in road-mending and decorating. Wondering what was going on below, he alighted and stood at an appropriate place while the people were watching him. Then he asked:

"You are mending the road
so happily and enthusiastically.
For whose benefit
are you mending the road?"

The people then answered:

"Venerable Sumedha,
there has appeared in this world
the Incomparable Buddha Dīpaṅkara,
who has conquered the five evil forces of Māra,
and who is the Supreme Lord of the whole world.
We are mending the road for his benefit."

(From this conversation it may be noted that Buddha Dīpaṅkara appeared only long after Sumedha had attained jhānas and higher spiritual powers. Sumedha did not happen to be aware of Dipaṅkara's conception, birth, attainment of Buddhahood, and teaching of the First Sermon because he had wandered about only in the forest and in the sky tally absorbed in the bliss of jhānas and in the exercise of higher spiritual powers, taking no interest in any event of the human world. It was only while he was travelling through space and when the people of Rammāvatī attending to road-mending and cleaning that he descended to earth to ask what was going on. This suggests that Sumedha was some few thousand years old at that time as the duration of life when Buddha [ 51 ] Dīpaṅkara appeared was a hundred thousand years.)

Sumedha's participation in the road-mending work.

Sumedha was filled with joy on hearing the word "Buddha" uttered by the people of Rammāvatī. He experienced great mental happiness and repeated the word, "Buddha, Buddha," as he could not contain the intense joy that had arisen in him.

Standing on the spot where he had descended, Sumedha was filled with happiness and also stirred by religious emotion, thought profoundly thus:

I will sow excellent seeds of merit in the fertile ground, namely, this Buddha Dīpaṅkara, for cultivation of good deeds. Rare and difficult, indeed, it is to witness the happy moment of a Buddha's appearance. That happy moment has now come to me. Let it not pass by unheeded.

Having thought thus, he asked the people: "O men, if you are preparing the road for the Buddha's visit, allot me a stretch of the road; I too would like to participate in your road-mending work."

Very well, said the people, and because they were confident that he was a person of great supernatural powers, they allotted him a big, boggy and very uneven portion of ground which would be difficult to mend. As they assigned him his share of work, they said: "You may improve and make it delightful with decorations."

Then Sumedha, with his heart gladdened by thought on the attributes of the Buddha, decided: "I can mend the road with my supernatural powers so that it will look pleasant. But if I do so the people around me may not think highly of it (because it will be done easily in an instant. )Today, I should do my duties with my own physical labour." Having decided thus he filled the bog with earth that he carried from a distance.

The arrival of Buddha Dīpaṅkara.

Before Sumedha had finished his assigned work Buddha Dīpaṅkara came along the road with four hundred thousand Arahants, who were all endowed with the Six [ 52 ] Higher Spiritual Powers, who could not be shaken by the eight vicissitudes of the world and who were purified of mental defilements.⁴

When Buddha Dīpaṅkara came along the road with four hundred thousand Arahants, Devas and men welcomed them with beating of drums. They also expressed their joy by singing songs of welcome in honour of the Buddha.

At that time human beings were visible to Devas, so also Devas were visible to human beings. All these beings, divine and human, followed the Buddha, some raising their hands in adoration and others playing their respective musical instruments.

Devas coming along through the air tossed and scattered about such celestial flowers as mandārava, paduma and kovilāra all over the place-up and down, front and behind, left and right-in honour of the Buddha. Earth-bound humans also did similar honour to the Buddha with such flowers as campā, sarala, mucalinda, nāga, punnāga, and ketakī.

Sumedha gazed, unblinking, at the Buddha's person. endowed with the thirty two marks of a superman and further adorned with the eighty minor marks. He witnessed the Buddha's resplendant person, looking as if of solid gold, at the height of glory, with the bright aura ever around him and the six rays emanating from his body flashing like lightning against a sapphire-blue sky.

[ 53 ] Then he decided thus: "Today I ought to sacrifice my life in the presence of the Buddha. Let him not tread in the mud and suffer discomfort. Let the Buddha with all his four hundred thousand Arahants tread on my back and walk just as they would do on ruby-coloured planks of a bridge. Using my body as footpath by the Buddha and his Arahants will definitely bring me long-lasting welfare and happiness.

Having made up his mind thus. he loosened his hair-knot, spread the mat of black-leopard skin, and fibre-robe on the murky swamp and lay prostrate on them like a bridge constructed of ruby-coloured wooden planks.

Sumedha's aspiration towards Omniscient Buddhahood.

In Sumedha, who had thus prostrated himself, the aspiration to become a Buddha had arisen thus: "'If I so desire, this very day I can become an Arahant in whom the āsavas are exhausted and mental defilements removed. But what does it profit me- a superman as I am- to realise the fruition of Arahantship and Nibbāna as an obscure disciple in the dispensation of Buddha Dīpaṅkara? I will exert my utmost for the attainment of Omniscient Buddhahood."

"What is the use of selfishly escaping the cycle of births alone in spite of the fact that I am a superior person fully aware of my prowess of wisdom, faith and energy. I will strive for attainment of Omniscient Buddhahood and liberate all beings including Devas from the cycle of births, which is a sea of suffering.

After attaining Omniscient Buddhahood myself as a result of my matcless deed of service rendered by lying prostrate in the mud making myself a kind of bridge for the Supreme Buddha Dīpaṅkara, I will rescue numerous beings out of the cycle of births, which is a sea of suffering."

[ 54 ] "After crossing over the stream of saṃsara and leaving behind the three realms of existences⁵, I will myself first embark on the Dhamma-raft of the Noble Path of the Eight Constituents and go to the rescue of all beings including Devas." Thus his mind was bent upon being a Buddha.

Sumittā-the Future Yasodharā.

While Sumedha was making his resolution to attain Buddhahood, a young Brahmin maiden named Sumittā came to join the people gathering in the presence of the Buddha. She brought eight lotus blooms to honour the Buddha with. When she got into the middle of the crowd, and as soon as her eyes fell on Sumedha she was seized with a sudden great love for him. Though she wanted to offer him some gift she had nothing but the eight lotus blooms. Then she said to him: "Venerable Hermit, I give you five lotus blooms so that you may offer them on your own to the Buddha. The remaining three blooms are for my own offering to the Buddha." She then handed the five lotus blooms to Sumedha and expressed her wish saying: "Venerable Hermit, throughout the period you are fulfilling Perfections for Buddhahood; may I be the partner sharing your life."

Sumedha accepted the lotus blooms from the young lady Sumittā and, in the midst of the gathering, offered them to Buddha Dīpaṅkara who had come towards him, and he prayed for the attainment of Perfect Self-Enlightenment.

Observing the scene that had taken place between Sumedha and Sumittā, the Buddha made the prediction in the midst of the multitude thus:

"O Sumedha, this girl Sumittā, will be your partner who will share life with you. assisting you with equal fervour and deed for your attainment of Buddhahood. She will be pleasing to you with her every thought, word and deed. She will be lovely in appearance, pleasing, sweet of speech and a delight to the heart. In your. [ 55 ] Dispensation as a Buddha, in your final existence, she will become a female disciple who will receive your spiritual inheritance of Arahantship complete with supernormal psychic powers.

The Utterance of the Prophecy.

(As mentioned under the heading Contemplation on rare appearance of a Buddha,"" there was none among the people who did not aspire to Buddhahood on beholding a Buddha's splendour. Although they aspired to Buddhahood, not one of them was qualified to become a Buddha. But unlike this multitude of people) Sumedha was fully endowed with all requisites for his attainment of Buddhahood. In fact, he was inclined to become a Buddha as he was endowed with the eight factors required for receiving the prophecy. These eight factors as have been stated previously on Buddhuppāda Nayama Khaṇa are: (1) being a true human being, (2) being a true male person, (3) having fulfilled all conditions necessary for realization of Arahantship, (4) meeting with a living Buddha, (5) being an ascetic who believes in the law of kamma, (6) having acquired jhāna attainments and high spiritual powers, (7) being prepared to lay down his life for the well - being of Buddha Dīpaṅkara: if the Buddha and his four hundred thousand Arahants had walked on the back of the prostrate Sumedha as though they would do on a bridge, he would not have survived; knowing full well of this, he unhesitatingly and courageously prepared himself to render service to the Buddha; such a performance is called a principal act of merit (adhikārakusala) according to Texts, and (8) intense wholesome aspiration after Buddhahood: even if the whole universe were filled with glowing red hot coal and sharp pointed spears, he would not shrink to tread through them for attainment of Buddhahood."

Knowing that Sumedha was endowed with these requisite qualifications, Buddha Dīpaṅkara came in person towards Sumedha and, standing at the head of his prostrate body, exercised his supernormal psychic power of seeing into the future to find out whether Sumedha. who had laid himself prostrate in the mud with an [ 56 ] intention to become a Buddha, would have his intention materialised or not. Then Buddha Dīpaṅkara came to know all about his future thus: "Sumedha will become a Buddha, Gotama by name, after four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons have passed from the present one." While still standing there the Buddha uttered the prophecy in nine verses beginning with the words "Passatha imaṃ tāpasaṃ jatilaṃ uggatāpanaṃ:"

(1) Monks. behold this matted-haired ascetic of
rigorous austere practicesl
This Sumedha the Hermit will
become an Enlightened One
among Brahmas, Devas and human beings
after innumerable aeons,
to be exact, four asaṅkhyeyya and
a hundred thousand aeons from now.

(2) On the threshold of his Buddhahood,
this Sumedha will renounce the world,
leaving behind the marvellously delightful city of Kapilavatthu;
he will then devote himself to meditation
and perform strenuous austere practices (dukkaracariyā).

(3) While staying under the banyan tree called Ajapāla
he will accept the offering of milk-rice
and go towards the river Nerañjarā⁶.

(4) Where his attainment of Buddhahood is drawing near,
he will partake of the milk-rice on the river bank
and approach the Bodhi Tree
by the path well prepared by Devas.

[ 57 ] (5) As he reaches the Bodhi Tree,
which will be the site of winning Enlightenment,
he goes round it clockwise;
he will turn from south to west,
from west to north
and then from north to east.
Thus becoming a Supremely Enlightened One
with none to excel him
and his fame spreading far and wide.
Then having seated himself at the foot of the Bodhi Tree
he will gain Insight-Knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.

(6) The Mother of this Buddha
will bear the name Māyā Devī;
the father will be named Suddhodana.
The Buddha will have the name Gotama.

(7) The pair of his Chief Disciples
will be Kolita and Upatissa,
who will be free of mental intoxicants (āsava)
and attachment (rāga),
and who are of calm heart and profound mental concentration.
The monk, Ānanda by name,
will wait upon this Buddha as an attendant.

(8) Khemā Therī and Uppalavaṇṇā Therī,
who are free of mental intoxicants and attachments,
who are of calm heart and profound mental concentration,
will become the pair of female Chief Disciples.
The fig tree, Ficus Religiosa (asattha),
will be the Buddha's Bodhi Tree
under which he attains Enlightenment.

(9) Citta and Hatthāḷavaka
will be the foremost male lay attendants serving the Buddha.
Similarly, Uttarā and Nandamātā
will be the foremost female lay attendants.

[ 58 ] Acclamation by Devas and men.

On hearing the prophecy of Buddha Dīpaṅkara who had no equal in the three worlds and who was always in pursuit of meritorious deeds, Devas and men acclaimed with joy: "It is said that this Sumedha the Hermit truly the seed of a Future Buddha." They slapped themselves on their upper arms⁷ in elation. Devas and Brahmas, who had come from the ten thousand universe together with humans raised their hands in adoration.

They also expressed their wishes in prayer saying,
"Even though we should now fail to put into practice the teaching of Buddha Dīpaṅkara, Lord of the entire world, we will encounter face to face, this noble Hermit who will appear as a Buddha; we will then be able to strive for attainment of higher knowledge of the Dhamma.
For example, there are those who try to cross a river, but cannot reach the destined landing place on the other side as they are carried away by the current of the river; they manage, however, to cling to a landing place somewhere further down the river and thence cross over to their destination."
In the same way, although we cannot yet avail ourselves of the teaching of Buddha Dīpaṅkara, we will encounter this noble Hermit destined to become a Buddha in future when we will attain the Path and Fruition.

Buddha Dīpaṅkara procceded to Rammāvatī.

After Buddha Dīpaṅkara, who was worthy of accepting the gift brought from a distance⁸, who having [ 59 ] insight into the three worlds was the possessor of the attribute "Knower of the World" (Lokavidū), had thus made the prediction and honoured him with eight handfuls of flowers, he departed, stepping out with his right foot placed by the side of Sumedha.

From the place where the Buddha had uttered the prophecy, the four hundred thousand Arahants also departed, keeping Sumedha on their right (after honouring him with flowers and scents). So also humans, supernatural beings⁹ and celestial musicians (Gandhabba Devas ) departed from there after paying obeisance to Sumedha and honouring him with flowers and scents.

Amidst the honours showered on him in reverence by the Devas and citizens of Rammāvatī, Buddha Dīpaṅkara, followed by the four hundred thousand Arahants, proceeded along the well-decorated road into the city where he took the seat especially prepared for him. Sitting down. he appeared like the morning sun rising on the top of Mount Yugandhara. Just as the early rays of the sun bring the lotus flowers into full bloom, so the Buddha would shed rays of Enlightenment to enable those, who were on the verge of liberation, to penetrate stage by stage into the depths of the Four Noble Truths. The four hundred thousand Arahants were also seated in an orderly manner at the places they had reached. The citizens of Rammāvatī then performed the ceremony of the great incomparable alms-giving (asadisa-dāna) to the Buddha and his follower bhikkhus.

Sumedha's delight and satisfaction.

When Buddha Dīpaṅkara. the leader of the three worlds, and the four hundred thousand Arahants went out of his sight, Sumedha got up joyfully from his prostrate position, and with his mind suffused with joy and happiness, exultation and delightful satisfaction, he sat down cross-legged on the huge pile of flowers that were strewn in his honour by Devas and men, and contemplated thus:

[ 60 ] "I am fully accomplished in jhānas and have attained the height of the Five Higher Spiritual Powers. Throughout the ten thousand universe, there is no ascetic who is my peer. I see none who is equal to me in the exercise of supernormal powers."

Thus contemplating he experienced intense joy and satisfaction.

Devas proclaimed thirty-two prophetic phenomena.

When Sumedha was seated cross-legged, happy with recollection of Buddha Dīpaṅkara's prophecy and feeling as though he already had the precious gem of Omniscient Buddhahood in his very hand, Devas and Brahmas from the ten thousand universe came and proclaimed with a mightly sound:

(1) Noble Sumedha, thirty-two prophetic phenomena have now taken place; these phenomena had occurred also to all previous Future Buddhas who had received the prophecy and were sitting down cross-legged as you are doing now. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(2) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, there was absence of extreme cold and heat or hotness of the weather. These two phenomena have been clearly discerned today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(3) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, there was utter silence and complete absence of disturbances over the whole ten thousand universe. These two phenomena have been clearly discerned today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(4) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, there were no violent winds blowing, there were no rivers flowing. These two phenomena have been clearly discerned today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

[ 61 ] (5) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, all the terrestrial flowers and aquatic flowers came to bloom simultaneously. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(6) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, all the creepers and trees bore fruit simultaneously. The same phenomenon has happended today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(7) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, all the precious jewels that lie in the sky and on earth shone bright. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(8) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, great sounds of celestial as well as earthly music was heard, without either Devas or human beings playing on the musical instruments. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(9) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, strange and exquisite flowers fall from heaven like rain. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(10) Noble Sumedha, when previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, there occurred whirling of the great ocean and trembling of the ten thousand universe. There have been great roars today because of these two phenomena. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(11) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, there occurred extinction of hell-fires throughout the ten thousand universe. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

[ 62 ] (12) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, the sun became clear of blemishes, all the stars and planets discernable during the day. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(13) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, water gushed from the earth without having any rain. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(14) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas had received the prophecy, the stars and planets shone with splendour. The planet Visākha appeared in conjunction with the full moon. The same phenomena have happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(15) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, snakes, mongooses and other animals, that live in pits, and foxes and other animals, that live in ravines, came out of their habitation. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(16) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, there was no sign of dissatisfaction¹⁰ in the heart of sentient beings and they were content with what they had. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(17) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, sentient beings were cured of diseases and relieved of hunger, The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

[ 63 ] (18) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, there occurred alleviation of attachment to sense-objects in the minds of sentient beings which are also rid of ill-will and bewilderment. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(19) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, the minds of sentient beings were rid of fear. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(20) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, the atmosphere was clear, free from dust, dirt and mist. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(21) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, the atmosphere was free of undesirable odours and filled with celestial fragrance. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(22) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, Devas and Brahmās (except formless ones of the latter beings) became visible. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(23) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy all abodes of incessant suffering became visible today. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(24) Noble Sumedha, on the day that previous Future Buddhas received the prophecy, walls, doors and even mountains always open wide and formed no obstructions or barriers. Today also these walls, [ 64 ] doors and mountains became as the empty space and the open sky, in any way. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

(25) Noble Sumedha,at the moment that Fūture Buddhas received the prophecy, there occurred no death nor conception of beings. The same phenomenon has happened today. So you will become a Buddha without fail.

Encouraging words of Devas and Brahmas.

Devas and Brahmas who had come from the ten thousand universe spoke words of praise and encouragement to Sumedha thus:

Noble Sumedha, strive on earnestly with constant diligence! There should be no retreat. Proceed with your endeavour! We know without any doubt that you will certainly become a Buddha.

End of Chapter on The Prophecy

1. An account of the life of Buddha Dīpaṅkara will be given in the twenty-fourth Buddhavaṃsa.

2. These wondrous events will be mentioned in Gotama Buddhavaṃsa.

3. A Buddha's sermon is usually figuratively referred to as medicine that cures the ills of the world. The author therefore beautifully describes Buddha Dīpaṅkara's teaching of the First Sermon as medicinal prescription to cure the suffering of beings.

4. The four hundred thousand Arahants always followed and accompanied Buddha Dīpaṅkara. The virtues of these Arahants are given just for ready reference in the Pāḷi Text which says that they were endowed with the Six Higher Spiritual Powers, that they could not be shaken by the eight vicissitudes of the world and that they were purified of mental defilements. But the Commentary states that their virtues were in addition to those already mentioned: they had little desire; they were easily contented; they could give others words of advice; in turn they listen to words of advice respectfully; they were devoid of attachment to five sense-objects; they did not mix with lay people (unnecessarily). and they observed the five kinds of discipline, etc., says the author. (The author also makes a quotation from the Hsutaunggan Pyo another well-known epic of Shin Sīlavaṃsa.)

5. Further details in this connection are given by the author in the Anudīpanī.

6. Name of the river, on the banks of which was Uruvela, the scene of the Bodhisatta's sojourn after his realization at the futility of most severe austerities. He bathed in the river before he ate the meal of milk-rice given by Sujātā. After eating the meal the Bodhisatta launched the bowl in the river. Having reached the Nāga's riverine abode it sank down and came into contact with the bowls similarly launched by the three previous Buddhas of this kappa. See also the Anudīpanī for the derivation of the river's name.

7. Slapping oneself on the left upper arm with the right palm is a physical expression of one's joy.

8. Āhuneyya: worthy of accepting the gift brought from a distance: the -fifth of the nine attributes of the Saṃgha.

9. Called nāga in Pāḷi who are serpant demons with miraculous powers.

10. The author here points out that people are inflicted with discontent in their everyday life, never satisfied with whatever they possess. Judging from this particular phenomenon, it is only on the day of a Buddha's prophecy that they are temporarily relieved of their perennial discontent.

VOLUME_1
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CHAPTER_6

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REFLECTIONS ON PERFECTIONS.

[ 65 ] The Future Buddha, Sumedha, was delighted with both the prophetic words of the Buddha Dīpaṅkara and the encouraging words of Devas and Brahmas, and he reflected thus when Devas and Brahmas had departed:

"Buddhas are not speakers of ambiguous words nor are they given to speaking of futile things. Never have their words proved wrong. Surely, I will become a Buddha.

As a stone thrown upwards certainly falls back upon the ground, so the words of Buddhas always prove unerring and never failing. Surely, I will become a Buddha."

"Again, as death certainly comes to living beings, so the words of Buddhas always prove unerring and never failing. Surely, I will become a Buddha.

Again, as the sun certainly rises at the end of night, so the words of Buddhas always prove unerring and never failing. Surely, I will become a Buddha."

"Again, as a lion certainly roars on coming out of his den, so the words of Buddhas always prove unerring and never failing. Surely, I will become a Buddha.

Again, as birth certainly follows conception in woman, the words of Buddhas always prove unerring and never failing. Surely, I will become a Buddha."""

Reflecting on these similes, Sumedha was certain that he would definitely attain Buddhahood in accordance with Buddha Dīpaṅkara's prophetic words. And he thought to himself thus:

[ 66 ] "Well, I will make a thorough search in the basic principle (concerning the three worlds¹) in all the ten directions for the conditions of the attainment of Buddhahood.

Thus he thought about and investigated those factors which condition the attainment of Buddhahood (Buddhakara Dhamma.)²

[ 67 ] (a) Perfection of Alms-giving.

While Sumedha was engaged thus in investigation of the Buddha-making factors, he discovered first the Perfection of Alms-giving which former Bodhisattas had always followed and practised and which was like a highway to the state of Buddhahood.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumadha, if you are, desirous of attaining the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience³ you should constantly establish first the Perfection of Alms-giving and make efforts to become accomplished in fulfilling it."

[ 68 ] He continued to admonish himself thus: "When a jar full with liquid is overturned, it pours out all its contents; likewise, Sumedha, you should give alms to all, be they low, middling or high, leaving nothing with you.⁴''

(b) Perfection of Morality.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Alms-giving, he went on to contemplate thus: "The Perfection of Alms-giving alone cannot constitute all the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Morality as the second Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled."

He admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, if you are desirous of attaining the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience, you should constantly establish the Perfection of morality and make efforts to become accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of morality."

He continued to admonish himself: "The yak⁵ protects its tail even at the risk of its life; if the tail should happen to be caught in something. it would rather die than damage it in making an effort to release it; likewise, Sumedha. you should observe morality in the four purifying fields. namely, (1) Pātimokkhasaṃvara⁶ (2) Indriyasaṃvara⁷, (3) Ājivapārisuddhi⁸ and (4) Paccayasannissita⁹, which form the basis of meritorious deeds. As the yak gives up its life in protecting its tail, so you should safeguard your morality constantly,"

(c) Perfection of Renunciation.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Morality, he went on to contemplate thus: "These two Perfection alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omṅiscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Renunciation as the third Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled.

He continued to admonish himself: "A man imprisoned for a long time and suffering from torture all the time, looks only for an opportunity to escape; likewise, Sumedha, you should regard all the existences in the [ 69 ] realms of sensuality, materiality and immateriality as prisons and look towards renunciation to escape from all these existences. "

(d) Perfection of Wisdom.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Renunciation, he went on to contemplate thus: "These three alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that [ 70 ] contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Wisdom as the fourth Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled.

[ 71 ] He continued to admonish himself: "A bhikkhu on his alms-round receives sufficient food by going to one household after another, be they low, middling or high; likewise, Sumedha, you should always approach all learned persons. irrespective of their depth of learning, and ask them the facts and the meaning of all that should be known by raising questions such as "Sir, what is meritorious? What is demeritorious? What is faulty? What is faultless?" and so on. You should thus make an effort to become accomplished in the Perfection of Wisdom. When you are thus accomplished, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

(e) Perfection of Energy.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Wisdom, he went on to contemplate thus: "These four Perfections alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other Perfections, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Energy as the fifth Perfection which former Bodhisattas cultivated and fulfilled.

He continued to admonish himself: "Crouching, standing and walking, the lion, king of beasts, is possessed of undiminished energy in the postures of crouching, standing and walking, and is always alert; likewise, Sumedha, you should constantly arouse your energy in all your existences. When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of Energy, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

(f) Perfection of Forbearance.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Energy, he went on to contemplate thus: "These five Perfections alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Forbearance as the sixth Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfllled.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, if you are desirous of attaining the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. You should constantly establish the Perfection of Forbearance without being inconsistent, such as being tolerant sometimes and not at other times, being patient with some people and not with others; if you can practise thus you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

He continued to admonish himself: "This great earth shows no signs of love or hate towards all the things that are dumped upon it but forbears them whether they are clean and good or unclean and foul; likewise, Sumedha, you should put up with all that is done to you be it in honour or in contempt. When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of Forbearance, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

(g) Perfection of Truthfulness.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Forbearance, he went on to investigate thus: "These six alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Truthfulness as the seventh Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always followed and practised.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, if you are desirous of attaining the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience, you should constantly establish the Perfection of Truthfulness which is speaking only the truth and not making double speech such as being truthful sometimes and not truthful at other times; speaking truthfully to some people and not truthfully to others, if you fulfil the Perfection of Truthfulness by speaking only the truth, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

He continued to admonish himself: "The morning star which serves as a guiding light keeps steady on its course, never deviating from it, irrespective of the season, whether it is rainy, cold or hot; likewise, Sumedha, you should not deviate from the Path of Truth - the Path that consists of eight sectors, namely, what you see, what you hear, what you feel, what you know; what you do not see, what you do not hear, what you do not feel and [ 72 ] what you do not know.¹⁰ When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of Truthfulness, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience.

(h) Perfection of Resolution.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Truthfulness, he went on to contemplate thus: "These seven alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Resolution as the eighth Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, if you are desirous of attaining the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience, you should constantly establish the Perfection of Resolution. When you fulfil it steadfastly without wavering, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

He continued to admonish himself: "A big rocky mountain that stands in a solid mass is not shaken by strong winds, but remains rooted in its place; likewise, Sumedha, you should perform without fail and at all times meritorious deeds which you have resolved to do. When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of [ 73 ] Resolution, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."¹¹.

(i) Perfection of Loving-kindness.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Resolution, he went on to contemplate thus: "These eight alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other factors, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Lovingkindness as the ninth Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, if you are desirous of attaining the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience, you should constantly establish [ 74 ] the Perfection of Loving-kindness; and make effort to cultivate and practise the meditation of loving-kindness (Metta-bhāvanā) in a peerless manner."

He continued to admonish himself: "Water suffuses with coolness all who bathe, the virtuous and the wicked alike, and cleanses them of dust and dirt; likewise, Sumedha, you should develop goodwill equally towards those who wish for your welfare and those who do not. When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of Loving-kindness, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

(j) Perfection of Equanimity.

After discovering and reflecting on the Perfection of Loving-kindness he went on to contemplate thus: "These nine alone cannot constitute the Buddha-making factors. There must be other Perfections, too, that contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience. I shall investigate them."

When he investigated thus, he discovered Equanimity as the tenth Perfection which former Bodhisattas had always cultivated and fulfilled.

Then he admonished himself thus: "Sumedha, a pair of scales remains steady without tipping to one side or the other when poised by equal weights; likewise if you remain evenly balanced in mind when faced with happiness or suffering, you will attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience."

He continued to admonish himself: "Sumedha, this great earth shows no signs of love or hate towards all the things that are dumped upon it whether they are clean or foul; likewise, Sumedha, you should always remain composed equable in heart, not being affected either by love or hate. When you are accomplished in fulfilling the Perfection of Equanimity, you will attain the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience.'

[ 75 ] A great earthquake took place after the reflections on all the Ten Perfections.

When Sumedha had reflected on the Perfection of Equanimity, it occurred to him thus: "The Perfections which contribute to the maturity of the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omniscience and make a Buddha, and which a Bodhisatta has to fulfil, are exactly these ten. There are no other Perfections besides these. And these Ten Perfections which are essential for Buddhahood do not exist outside myself; neither in the sky above nor on the earth below; nor do they lie in the east or in any other direction. In fact, they are in my heart. When he had thought thus, he urged himself: "Sumedha, fulfil these Ten Perfections which are the excellent factors conditioning Buddhahood, without swerving in any way."

Then he considered going over the Perfections in forward order: Alms-giving, Morality, Renunciation, Wisdom, Energy, Forbearance, Truthfulness, Resolution, Loving-kindness and Equanimity. Then he considered them in reverse order: Equanimity, Loving-kindness, Resolution, Truthfulness, Forbearance, Energy, Wisdom, Renunciation, Morality, and Alms-giving. Then he considered going over them in groups of two beginning from the middle two: Energy, Forbearance; Wisdom, Truthfulness; Renunciation, Resolution; Morality, Lovingkindness; Alms-giving, Equanimity. Then he considered going over them again beginning from the two ends: Alms -giving, Equanimity; Morality, Loving-Kindness; Renunciation, Resolution; Wisdom, Truthfulness; Energy, Forbearance. Thus he contemplated on the Ten Perfections as thoroughly as an oil-press grinds oil-seeds to produce oil.

He also considered all the matters connected with the Perfections that are essential for the attainment of Buddhahood: giving up external things is an exercise of Ordinary Perfection (Pāramī); giving up one's limb is an exercise of Higer Perfection (Upapāramī); giving up one's life is an exercise of Highest Perfection (Paramattha Pāramī).

[ 76 ] Because of the power generated by investigation of the Ten Perfections complete with their basic principles of functions and characteristics, this great earth of the ten thousand universe leaned left and right, forward and backward, downward and upward, in these ways it shook violently. It also made loud, rumbling and echoing sounds. Like a sugarcane press operated by its workers, or like the turning wheel of an oil-mill, this great earth swirled and quaked.

As has been stated in the latter part of the Chapter on Sumedha, after declaring the prophecy to Sumedha, Buddha Dīpaṅkara entered the city of Rammāvatī and went to the citizens who had invited him to a meal. It was while the Buddha was partaking of the meal Sumedha reflected on the Ten Perfections one after another. And it was at the end of his reflection that the earthquake took place. Because of the violent earthquake all the people who were hosts to the Buddha could not stand firm; like the big sāl trees lashed by the strong winds descending from Mount Yugandhara, they fell to the ground in bewilderment and in a faint.

At the place of the alms-offering thousands of pots containing food and hundreds of water-pots knocked against one another and were shattered into pieces.

Being greatly shaken, frightened and troubled in mind, they unanimously approached Buddha Dīpaṅkara and said, "Venerable Possessor of the Five Eyes of Intelligence, does this incident foretell our fortune or misfortune? A fearful danger has befallen us all. May it please the Bhagavā to dispel our fears!"

Then the Blessed One replied, "Be free from the fear caused by this earthquake; be relieved of your worries. There is nothing to be afraid of. I have today made the prophecy to Sumedha, declaring that he will in future become an Omniscient Buddha in the world. He has reflected on the Ten Perfections that were fulfilled by former Buddhas. Because of Sumedha's reflections on the Ten Perfections which are essential for the attainment of Buddhahood without leaving out any one of them, [ 77 ] this great earth of the ten thousand universe shook violently." Thus Buddha Dīpaṅkara explained to the citizens of Rammāvatī the cause of great earthquake and assured them of the absence of any danger.

Homage to Sumedha by Devas and Brahmās.

The citizens at once became calm and free from worry on hearing the words of Buddha Dīpaṅkara. In fact, they were filled with great joy, and taking flowers, scents and other offerings, they all marched out of the city, approached Sumedha and honoured him with their offerings and paid obeisance to him.

Then Sumedha, following the usual practice of Future Buddhas, contemplated on the attributes of an Enlightened One; and with steadfast mind directed towards Buddha Dīpaṅkara, he paid homage to him. Then he stood up from his seat where he had been sitting cross-legged.

When Sumedha thus stood up from his seat, both Devas and men did honour to him by showering on him celestial and terrestrial flowers that they had brought with them.

And they spoke auspicious words of praise and encouragement: "You, Noble Hermit, have aspired for the noble prize of Buddhahood. May your wish be fulfilled!"

May all dangers and obstacles, which lie in store for you, remove themselves and never come to pass. May all worries and ailments vanish and may you never encounter them. May no harm befall you. May you speedily attain the Knowledge of the Path and Fruition, and Omnisciencel

O Great Hero, as trees bloom in their right season in the world, so may you bring forth the Fourfold [ 78 ] Valorous Wisdom (Catu-vesārajja-ñāṇa),¹² the Sixfold Unique Wisdom (Cha-asādhāraṇa-ñāṇa)¹³ and the Ten Powers (Dasabala-ñāṇa), etc., which are the fruitful possessions of all Buddhas!"

O Great Hero, do fulfil the Ten Perfections as all Buddhas have done. May you be able to do sol

O Great Hero, as all Buddhas have penetrated the Four Noble Truths at the foot of the Bodhi Tree, so may you become a Buddha after penetrating the Four Noble Truths at the foot of the Bodhi Tree, the site of victory!

O Great Hero, as all Buddhas have turned the Wheel of the Dhamma by delivering the First Sermon,¹⁴ so may you be able to turn the Wheel of the Dhamma by delivering the First Sermon!"

[ 79 ] "As the moon shines free from the five blemishes of mist, fog, cloud, Asurinda¹⁵ and smoke on a full-moon day, so may you appear resplendent in the ten thousand universe with your heart's desire fulfilled!"

As the sun liberated from the mouth of Asurinda shines radiant with its own light, so may you shine bright with the glory of a Buddha after your liberation from all the existences!

As all rivers flow and are gathered into the great ocean, so may all Devas and men congregate in your presence!

In this manner Devas and men proclaimed his glory and offered auspicious words of prayer.

Then Sumedha who had thus been offered resounding words of encouragement complete with good wishes and admiration, entered a great forest in the Himalayas, being determined to practise and fulfil the Ten Perfections.

End of Chapter on Reflections on Perfections.

End of the Story of Sumedha.

1. These are kāmāvacara, rūpāvacara and arūpāvacara, the realm of sensuality, the realm of materiality and the realm of immateriality respectively.

2. The author points out that the wisdom involved in such mental investigation is called Perfection Investigating Wisdom (Pāramī-pavicaya-nāṇa). The wisdom that arose in Sumedha's mental process was of great potent. It helped him see clearly the Perfections, the great sacrifices and the practices, all of which are essential in gaining Omniscience and are called constituent elements of Enlightenment (Bodhi-sambhara). This Wisdom was achieved by himself, without the help of a teacher. According to the Sub-Commentary on the Dhammasaṅganī, it was the fore-runner of the arising of Omniscience in him.
The author continues to explain: Buddha Dīpaṅkara had merely predicted Sumedha's becoming a Buddha. He did not expound on what and how to practice for becoming one. Sumedha had to think about and find out those practices with his own Perfection Investigating Wisdom, and when he did so he came to see very clearly what to practise and how to proceed.
Then the author reproduces a long verse that depicts Sumedha's investigation of the Ten Perfections from the Paramīdawgan Pyo of Shin Sīlavaṃsa.
The phrase "basic principle" in the aforesaid paragraph is the translation of the Pāḷi 'dhammadhatu, of which 'dhatu' literally means 'a phenomenon that carries its own nature'. That is to say, it is a phenomenon that is not created by anyone, but which arises on its own as conditioned by a cause. If a phenomenon is created by someone, is cannot be said to be a natural phenomenon. Therefore, "basic principle" means 'a phenomenon that arises not through a person's effort but as a result of natural conditions and circumstances, which in Pāḷi is Dhammadhatu."
If one wants to look for Buddha-making factors, one should do so in the basic principle, dhammadhātu; hence, "I will make a thorough search in the basic principle" (vicināmi dhammadhātuyā). In contrast, when an individual is meant and not a principle, one may say in Pāḷi, lokadhātuya, "in the world" (What this means is that a principle is concerned with dhammadhātu whereas an individual is concerned with lokadhātu.) For instance, there is such a saying as "there cannot be two contemporary Buddhas in the world (lokadhātu)." Here as the saying concerns an individual, lokadhātu, the "world" is used instead of dhammadhātu.

3. That is becoming a Buddha, says the author.

4. Details of the Perfection are given in the Anudīpani. So are details of each and every item of the remaining Perfections.

5. The author also mentions its Pāḷi name: camari.

6. Pātimokkhasaṃvara: restraint according to the Pātimokkha; Pātimokkha is the name of the collection of precepts for members of the Saṃgha.

7. Indriyasaṃvara: restraint of the controlling facultles.

8. Ājivapārisuddhi: purity of, livelihood.

9. Paccayasannissita: wise use of a bhikkhu's requisites."

10. The author explains the meaning of this as: say you see, hear, feel or know what you do see, hear, feel or know respectively; similarly say you do not see, hear, feel or know what you do not see, hear, feel or know. You stand on the Path of Truth only when you say that you see what you do see with your eyes in the case of seeing: only when you say you hear what you hear with your ears in the case of hearing: only when you say you feel with your nose, tongue or body in the case of feeling: only when you say you know what you know with your mind in the case of knowing. The same holds good in the case of not seeing, not hearing, not feeling and not knowing. Such a speech established on the Path of Truth is said to be Ariyavohāra (Speech of the Noble Ones ), says the Buddha.

11. Here the author explains that resolution means determination to see things happen the way you like once you have resolved, "I will do this or that, and I will make it happen in this manner," and so on. For instance, Prince Temiya made up his mind to assume the guise of a deaf and dumb person though he was not deaf or dumb, until he was permitted to renounce the world; such a determination is called adhiṭṭhāna, resoluting.
Temiya's story is contained in the Mūgapakkha-Jātaka (No.539).He was the Bodhisatta born as the son of the king of Kāsi. Even in his infancy he recollected his, past lives, one of which was being in the state of severe suffering called Ussada-niraya, owing to his giving orders of punishment to convicted criminals. His recollection made him hate kingship bitterly, and at the advice of the godess of his parasol, who had been his mother in a former existence, he resolved to pretend to be an invalid who could neither hear nor speak. For sixteen years the royal parents tried in vain to break his determination. As the last attempt they appointed him king for one week, but he was not happy to rule the country and remained firm in his determination. He was then ordered to be clubbed to death and buried in the charnel ground. Sunanda the charioteer took him there in a chariot, and while he was digging the grave, Temiya spoke to him and expressed his wish to lead an ascetic life. The matter was reported to the palace, and the king and queen rushed to the scene. But after listening to a sermon delivered by Temiya who was now an ascetic they all joined him by becoming ascetics themselves.

12. The Fourfold Valorous Wisdom: catuvesārajja-ñāṇa: (1) Antarāyikadhamme vā jānatā, Knowledge of factors forming an impediment to attainment of Nibbāna; (2) Niyyānikadhamme passatā, Knowledge of factors leading to escape from the round of rebirths, (3) Kilesārīnaṃ hatā Arahantā, Knowledge of destruction of enemy-like defilement, and (4) Sammā sammañ ca sabbadhammānaṃ buddhattā sammāsambuddhena, Perfect Self Enlightenment, i.e. Omniscience.

13. The Sixfold Unique Wisdom: Cha-asādhāraṇa-ñāṇa: (1) lndriyapaopariyatta-ñāṇa, Knowledge of different stages of development in the faculties of beings, (2) Āsayānusaya-ñāṇa, Knowledge of covert and latent inclinations of beings, (3) Yamakapāṭihāriya-ñāṇa, Knowledge of performance of the Twin Miracle, (4) Mahakaruṇā-ñāṇa, Knowledge concerning great compassion for beings, (5) Sabbaññuta-ñāṇa, Knowledge of all aspects and characteristics of all factors, i.e. Omniscience, and (6) Anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa, unobstructed Knowledge of what all Buddha should know.

14. Its full name is Dhammacakkappavattana Sūtta, "The Discourse on Turning of the Wheel of the Law." It was delivered to the 'Group of Five' led by, Koṇḍañña at the Deer Park called Isipatana now known as Sarnath, near modern Varanasi on the full-moon day of Āsaḷha (June-July). Its contents are the two extreme practices which a recluse should avoid and such fundamental teachings of the Buddha as the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Noble Path.

15. Literally, chief of Asuras, who form a class of inferior deities. In fact, Asuras are inhabitants of one of the four woeful states. There are more than one Asurinda, but here the word refers to Rāhu, who tends to capture the moon or the sun by means of his mouth. Such a seizure is believed to be the cause of the eclipse of the moon or the sun.

VOLUME_1
PART_2
CHAPTER_7

spage-1 spage-125

ON MISCELLANY.
(Veneration to the Exalted One, the Homage-Worthy, the Perfectly Self-Enlightened).

Miscellaneous notes on the Perfections for the benefit of those who aspire to Buddhahood.

We conclude here the story of Sumedha the Hermit in order to furnish miscellaneous notes on the ten Perfections (as mentioned in the Commentary on the Cariyā. Piṭaka) for the benefit of those who aspire to supreme goal of Perfect Self-Enlightenment (Omniscience) and to enable them to acquire skill in comprehending, practising and accumulating the requisites for Enlightenment.

In this chapter will be dealt with the following (pertinent features of Pāramis in the form of questions and answers).

1. What are the Pāramis?
2. Why are they called Pāramis ?
3. How many Pāramis are there?
4. What is the sequence in which the Pāramīs are arranged?
5. What are the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the Pāramis ?
6. What are the basic conditions of the Paramās ?
7. What are the factors that defile the Pāramis?
8. What are the factors that purify the Pāramis ?
9. What are the factors that oppose the Pāramis ?
10. What is the detailed method of practising the Pāramis?
11. What is the complete analysis of the Pāramis ?
12. What is the synopsis of the Pāramis ?
13. What are the factors for accomplishing the Pāramis ?
14. What is the period of time required for accomplishing the Pāramis ?
15. What are the advantages that accrue form the Pāramis ?
16. What is the fruit of the Pāramis ?

1. What are the Pāramis?.

The answer-to the question is: The noble qualities such as generosity, morality, etc., not spoiled by craving, pride or wrong view, but founded on great compassion and wisdom which is skill in seeking merit, are to be named Pāramī.

Further explanations: When giving dāna, if it is tainted with craving, thinking "This is my dāna"; if it is tainted with pride, thinking, "This dāna is mine"; if it is tainted with wrong view, thinking, "This dāna is my self", such dāna. is said to be spoiled by craving, pride or wrong view. It is only the kind of dāna not spoiled by craving, pride or wrong view which could be termed Perfection. (The same applies to observance of morality, etc.)

To be qualified as a Pāramī, acts of merit such as dāna, sīla, etc., should not only be free from taints of craving, pride or-wrong view, but should. be founded on Great Compassion (Mahā-karunā) and wisdom which is skill-in seeking merit, (Upāya-kosalla Nana).

Mahākarunā: A Bodhisatta should be able to develop immense sympathy for all beings, close or distant, as if they were all his own children. Without discriminating between friend and foe, he should look upon all sentient beings as poor sufferers in samsāra where they are burning with the. fires of craving, hatred and bewilderment, with the fires of birth, ageing, death, grief, lamentation, pain, distress and despair. Contemplating thus he should develop vigorous compassion for them. His compassion should be so great as to enable-him to go to the rescue of all beings from samsāra even sacrificing his life. Such compassion is called the Great Compassion which forms the basis of all Perections.

The-Bodhisatta in his life as Sumedha the Hermit was so accomplished in spiritual attainments at the time he met Buddha Dipaṅkara that. he could achieve his own liberation, should he so desire. But as a Great Being endowed with supreme compassion, he bore personal suffering in samsāra for the long duration of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons to fulfil the Perfections in order to liberate suffering beings.

Upāya-kosalla Nāṇa: It is the wisdom which is skill in doing deeds of merit such as dāna, sīla, etc., so that they become basic means and support for attainment of Omniscience. A man of good family who aspires to Buddhahood should engage in meritorious deeds of dāna, sīla, etc., with the sole aim of attaining Omniscience. (He should not wish for benefits that really lead to suffering in saṃsāra). The wisdom that enables him to aim at and wish for

Omnisci ence as the only fruit of his good deeds. is called Upāyakosalla Nāṇa.

The aforesaid Mahākaruṅā and Upāya-kosalla Ñāṇa are the fundamentals for attainment of Buddhahood and for practice of Perfections. One who aspires to Buddhahood should first of all endearour to become accomplished in these two fundamentals.

Only the qualifies such as dāna, sīla, etc., developed on the basis of these two principles can become true Perfections.

2. Why are they called Pāramis?

It may be asked why the ten virtues such as dāna, sīla, etc., are called Pāramis.

The answer is: The Pail word Pāramī is the combination of pararna and i. Parama means 'supreme' and is used here as a designation of Bodhisattas, because they are the highest of beings endowed with the extraordinary virtues of dāna, sīla, etc.

Or, because they fulfil and protect such special virtues as dāna, sīla, etc; because they behave as though they bind on and attract other beings to them by means of these virtues of dāna, sīla, etc.; because they purify others by removing their defilements in a most ardent manner; because they particularly proceed to Supreme Nibbāna; because they know their next existence as they comprehend the present life; because they practise virtues such as sīla, etc., in an incomparable manner as if these virtues were ingrained in their mental continuum; because they dispel and destroy all alien hordes of deffiements which threaten them, Bodhisattasṅ are calIed' Parama'.

A Bodhisatta is incomparably endowed with special virtues such as dāna, sīla, etc., This accounts for the emergence of the utterance and the knowledge "This person is a Bodhisatta; he is a Pararea, a Supreme Being." Thus the special virtues of dāna, sīla etc., come to be known as 'Pārama'.

Again, only Bodhisattas are able to perform deeds of merit such as dāna, sīla, etc., in an unparalleled manner. Hence these deeds of merit are called Pāramī, meaning the duties of Bodhisattas (Paramānam kammam Pāramī), or the property of Bodhisattas (Paramānam, ayam Pāramī).

3. How many Pāramis are there?

In accordance with the teaching:
Dānam silañ ca nekkhamam, Paññā viriyena pañcamam, Khanū saccam 'adhiṭṭhānaṃ, Mettupekkhā ti te dasa,
there are ten Perfections (Pāramis),viz. Generosity, Morality, Renunciation, Wisdom, Energy, Forbearance, Truthfulness, Resolution, Loving-kindness and Equanimity.

4. What is the sequence in which the Pāramis are arranged?.

There are five ways of arranging doctrinal points in sequential order.

(i) order of actual happening (pavattikkama)
(ii) order of abandonment (pahānakkama)
(iii) order of practising (paṭipattikkama)
(iv) order of planes of existence (bhūmikkama).
(v) order of teaching by the Buddha (desanākkama).

(i) Concerning sequence of actual happening, for example, with reference to conception,it is stated in the Text, 'Pathamam kalalam hoti, Kalalā hoti abbudam', etc., For womb-born creatures, the first stage is the fluid stage of kalala for seven days,the second is the frothy stage of abbuda for seven days:the third stage of pesi takes the form of a lump of flesh, and so on.

This form of teaching in sequence of events as they actually take place is known as the order of actual happening.

(ii) Concerning sequence of abandonment, for example, with reference to defilements,it is stated in the Text,"Dassanena pahātabbā dhammā, bhāvanāya pahātabbā dhammā', etc., There are dharnmas which are to be abandoned through the first stage of the Path; and there are dhammas which are to be abandoned through the three higher stages of the Path. This form of teaching in serial order according to steps of abandonment is known as the order of abandonment.

(iii) Concerning sequence of practice, for example, the seven stages of purification of morality, purification of mind, purification of view, etc., The first practice is to purify morality; this is followed by the practice for purification of mind. In this way the stages of purification should proceed in their due order. Such teaching in sequential order of practice is known as the order of practising.

(iv) Concerning the order of planes of existence, the first in order of teaching Dhamma is the sensuous plane (kāmāvacara) followed by the material plane (rūpāvacara) and then by the nonmaterial plane (arupavacara). Such an arrangement in teaching is known as the order of planes of existences.

(v) In addition to the aforesaid four serial arrangements of teaching, there is the fifth kind in which dhammas such as the aggregate of matter (rūpakkhandha), the aggregate of feelings (vedanākkhandha), the aggregate ot perceptions (saññākkhandha), etc., are taught by the Buddha in a particular order for some specific reason. Such an arrangement of teaching is known as the order of teaching by the Buddha.

In the first four orders of arrangement, each has its own reason for following a particular sequence, because conceptional stages actually happen in that order; because defilements areabandoned actually in that order; because the acts of purification are done in that order or because the planes of existences actually stand in that order. But in the fifth method of teaching desanākkama, the Buddha has a special reason for adopting a particular: sequence in teaching each set of such dhammas as the five aggregates (khandhas), the twelve bases (āyatanas), etc.

In the chapter on Pāramis, the Perfections are arranged not in their order of happening, of abandonment, of practice, or of planes of existence as in the first four methods but in accordance with this fifth method, desanākkama taught by the Buddha for a special reason.

It might be asked here why the Buddha adopted the particular sequence--Generosity, Morality, Renunciation etc.-- and not any other in teaching the ten Perfections

The answer is: When the Bodhisatta, Sumedha the Hermit, first investigated the Perfections to be fulfilled just after receiving the prophecy, he discovered them in a particular sequence; he therefore fulfilled them in that order. And after his Enlightenment, he taught the Perfections in the same sequence he had practised.

To give a more detailed explanation: Of the ten Perfections, Generosity helps develop Morality in a special way; even an immoral person (as a donor on the occasion of his son's novitiation) is likely to observe precepts with no difficulty; and generosity is easier to practise. (Though it may be difficult for one to keep the precept,one can find it easy to give alms.) Hence the Perfection of Generosity is mentioned first.

Only generosity based on morality is most beneficial.; so Morality follows Generosity.

Only morality based on renunciation is most beneficial; so Renunciation is taught immediately after Morality.

Similarly, renunciation based on wisdom--wisdom on energy 'energy on forbearance--forbearance on truthfulness-- truthfulness on resolution--resolution on loving-kindness--loving-kindness based on equanimity is most beneficial; thus Equanimity is taught after Loving-kindness.

Equanimity can be beneficial only when it is based on compassion. Bodhisattas are Great Beings who had already been endowed with the basic quality of compassion.

Questions concerning Mahakaruna and Upekkhā.

It might be asked here: How could Bodhisattas, the Great Compassionate Ones, look upon sentient beings with equanimity (indifference)?

(Some teachers say:) "It is not in all cases and at all times that Bodhisattas show indifference towards sentient beings; they do so only when it is necessary."

(Other teachers say:) "They do notshow indifference towards beings, but only towards offensive deeds done by them. Thus Great Compassion and Perfection of Equanimity are not opposed to each other".

Another way of explaining the serial order of the Perfections.

(1) Dāna is taught initially (a) because generosity is likely to occur among by many people and thus belongs to all beings; (b) because it is not so fruitful as morality, etc., and (e) because it is easy to practise.

(2) Morality is stated immediately after generosity (a) because morality purifies both the donor and the donee; (b) because after teaching the rendering of service to others (such as alms-giving) the Buddha wishes to teach abstention from causing affliction to others such as killing; (c) because dāna involves some positive action whereas sīla involves some practice of restraint, and the Buddha wishes to teach restraint after teaching positive action (which is giving of alms); (d) because dāna leads to attainment of wealth and sīla leads to attainment of human or deva existence; and (e) because he wishes to teach the attainment of human or Deva existence after teaching attainment of wealth.

(3) Renunciation is mentioned immediately after morality (a) because through renunciation perfect morality may be observed; (b) because the Buddha wishes to teach good mental conduct (through renunciation¹) immediately after teaching good physical and verbal conduct (through morahty); (c) because attainment of Jhāna (renunciation) comes easily to one whose morality is pure; (d) (Fault arising from demeritorious deeds (karnrnaparadha) is eradicated through observance of morality; by so doing purity of physical or verbal exertion (payoga-suddhi) is achieved. Mental defilements (kilesa-paradha) are eradicated through renunciation; by so doing inherent elements of wrong views of eternalism (sassataditthi) and annihilationism (uccheda-diṭṭhi) are cleared away and purity of disposition (asaya-suddhi) with regard to Insight Knowledge (Vipassana Nana) and to Knowledge that Volitional activities are one's own property (Kammassakata Nana) is achieved. because the Buddha accordingly wishes to teach the purification of knowledge by renunciation which follows the purification of exertion (payoga-suddhi), and (e) because the Buddha wishes to teach that eradication of mental defilements at the pariyutthana stage through renunciation can take place only after eradication of the mental defilements at the vitikkama stage through morality².

(4) Wisdom is mentioned immediately after renunciation (a) because renunciation is perfected and purified by wisdom (b) because the Buddha wishes to teach that there is no wisdom without Jhāna (including renunciation); (c) because he wishes to teach wisdom which is the basic cause of equanimity, immediately after teaching renunciation which is the basic cause of concentration of the mind; and (d) because he wishes to teach that only by sustained thinking (renunciation) directed towards the welfare of others can there arise knowledge of skilful means (Upaya-kosalla Nana) in working for their welfare.

(5) Energy is stated immediately after wisdom (a) because the function of wisdom is fulfilled by application of energy; (b) because the Buddha wishes to teach marvels of endeavours for the welfare of beings after teaching wisdom that comprehends with insight the nature of reality which is void of personality or self (c) because he wishes to teach that the cause for exertion³ immediately after the cause for equanimity; and (d) because he wishes to teach that special benefits accrue only from ardent striving after making careful consideration.

(6) Forbearance is mentioned immediately after energy (a) because forbearance is fulfilled by energy (as only an energetic man can withstand all suffering that he encounters); (b) because the Buddha wishes to teach that energy is an adornment of forbearance (as forbearance shown by an indolent man because he cannot win is not dignified, whereas forbearance shown by an energetic man in spite of his winning position, is ); (c) because he wishes to teach the cause of concentration immediately after teaching the cause of energy (as restlessness, uddhacca, due to excessfie energy is abandoned only by understanding the dhamma through reflection on it, dhammanijJhānakkhanti); (d) because he wishes to teach that only an energetic man can constantly endeavour (as only a man of great forebearance is free from restlessness and always able to perform meritorious deeds; (e) because he wishes to teach that craving for reward cannot arise when endowed with mindfulness as one works diligently for the welfare of others (as there can be no craving when one reflects on the dhamma in undertaking welfare works ); and (f) because he wishes to teach that a Bodhisatta bears with patience the suffering caused by others also when he is not working diligently for their welfare (as evidenced from the Cūla Dhammapāla Jātaka, etc.)

(7) Truthfulness is mentioned immediately after forbearance (a) because forbearance can be maintained for long through truthfulness as one's forbearance will last only when one is truthful (b) because having mentioned first forbearance of wrongs inflicted by others, the Buddha wishes to teach next how the Bodhisatta keeps his word to render assistance even to those who have done him wrong ungratefully. (At the time of receiving the prophecy, the Bodhisatta aspiring to Buddhahood makes the resolution to rescue all beings. True to this firm determination he renders help even to those who had wronged him. To illustrate: In the Mahākapi Jātaka, the sixth Jātaka of the Tiṃsa Nipāta, the story is told of the Bodhisatta in the existence of a monkey going to the rescue of a brahmin who had fallen into a deep chasm. Exhausted by strenuous exertion to bring the man out of danger, the Bodhisatta trustingly fell asleep on the lap of the man he had saved. With an evil thought (of eating the flesh of his rescuer) the wicked man hit the monkey' s head with a stone. Without showing any anger and patiently bearing the injury on his head, the Bodhisatta continued his effort to save the man from the danger of wild 'beasts. He showed him the way out of the forest by drops of blood that fell as he jumped from tree to tree; (c) because he wishes to show that a Bodhisatta with tolerance never relinquishes the practice of speaking only the truth steadfastly though he is misrepresented by others; and (d) because having taught the meditative reflection by means of which the emptiness of soul may be understood, the Bodhisattā wishes to show Knowledge of truth developed through the process of that reflection (dhammanijjhātnakkhanti.)

(8) Resolution is mentioned immediately after Truthfulness (a) because truthfulness is accomplished through resolution since refraining from falsehood becomes perfect in one whose resolution to speak truth remains unshakeable even at the risk of his life; (b) because after teaching truthfulness he wishes to teach resolute commitment of Bodhisattas to truth without wavering; and (c) because after teaching that only those whopossessKnowledge of Truth of things (as they really are) are able to build up the perfections and bring them to completion he wishes to teach that Pāramī-requisites can be effected as a result of knowledge of Truth.

(9) Loving-kindness is mentioned immediately after Resolution: (a) because development of loving-kindness helps fulfilment of resolution to undertake the work for the welfare of others, (b) because, after teaching resolution, the Buddha wishes to teach what brings benefit to others in accordance with his resolve (for a Bodhisatta in the course of fulfilling his Perfections generally abides in loving-kindness); and (c) because when one is established imperturbably in determination to work for others' welfare, can one carry out one's wish with loving, kindness.

(10) Equanimity is mentioned immediately after Loving-kindness (a) because equanimity purifies loving-kindness;(when one develops loving-kindness without equanimity, one is liable to be deceived by craving or greed that wears the mask of loving-kindness). Only when one develops equanimity sometimes can one be away from the deceptive craving or greed; (b) because after teaching how the interest of others should be served out of loving-kindness, the Buddha wishes to teach that indifference is to be maintained towards all wrongs inflicted by them. (The Bodhisatta works for the welfare of beings with loving-kindness; he keeps a balanced mind, forgiving all beings when wronged by them); (c) because, after teaching the development of loving-kindness, the Buddha wishes to teach its advantages, for only after developing loving-kindness can equanimity be successfully developed; and (d) the Buddha wishes to teach .the wonderful attribute (of a Bodhisatta) that he can remain equanimous even towards those who show him good-will.

Thus our Teacher, the Lord of the world, teaches the Perfections in a proper sequence, as described above, arranged on some principle of order and succession, not at random or haphazardly.

5. What are the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the Pāramis?.

We shall begin this section with explanations of the words characteristic', 'function', 'manifestation', and 'proximate cause'. We shall next deal with the definition and purport of the Perfections together with their characteristics, functions, manifestations, and proximate causes collectively as well as individually.

Knowledge free from personality-belief (atta-diṭṭhi is possible only through comprehension of the ultimate realities of nāma and rūpa which is attained by reflecting upon each reality in terms of its characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes. Similarly, it is only when one knows the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the Pāramis collectively as well as individually that one will have a clear understanding of them. Therefore the Texts usually describe these four features concerning the Perfections.

Characteristic (Lakkhaṇa): The Commentary defines: Sāmaññaṃ vā sabhāvo vā, dhammānam lakkhanam 'matam, Characteristic (lakkhaṇa) has two aspects: (i) sāmañña⁴, ordinary features common to all, and (ii) sabhāva, special feature peculiar to one and not shared by others. (For example, the material quality, paṭhavi (earth-element) has two characteristics, namely, (a) change, impermanence, unsatisfactioness, not being subject to control, and (b) hardness. The characteristics under (a) are features common to other elements, whereas the characteristic of hardness is the unique feature of the earth-element only, not shared by others).

Function (Rasa): The Commentary defines: "kiccam vā tassa sampatti, rasoti paridipaye', Function is to be explained also as two aspects: kicca and sampatti (i) kicca rasa, function which is to be performed, and (ii) Sampatti rasa:, attainment as a result thereof.

Manifestation⁵ (Paccupatthāna): The Commentary defines: phalam, va paccupatthanam-upaṭṭhānākāropi vā, Whenever a person ponders deeply over a certain mind-object, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind-object under consideration, relates to its functions, relates to its cause, relates to its effect. Thus any one of those which appears in his mind concerning the mind-object he is thinking about is called manifestation.

Proximate cause (Padaṭṭhāna): The Commentary defines: Asannakāranam. yaṃ tu,padaṭṭhānanti tam matam', The immediate contributory factor for the arising of an ultimate reality is known as proximate cause.

What then are the four features of the ten Perfections? The answer is: Dealing first with those common to all ten Perfections, (i) they have the characteristic of serving the interest of others; (ii) their function is to provide assistance to others (kicca rasa), or not vacillating as to fulfilment (sampatti rasa); (iii) their manifestation is the appearance in the yogi's mind of the knowledge that they have the nature of wishing for the welfare of beings or the effect of becoming a Buddha; (iv) their proximate cause is Great Compassion (Mahākaruṇā) and skill in ways and means (Upāya-kosalla Nāna).

The four features belonging to each Perfections are, (1) The volition founded on Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Nāna to relinquish, donate, give away one's possession to others is called the Perfection of Alms-giving (Dāna).

(a) It has the characteristic of relinquishing; (b) its function is to destroy greed that clings to materials to be given away; (c) its manifestation is non-attachment that appears m the yogi's mind (regarding its nature) or attainment of wealth and prosperity and happy existence (regarding its effect) (d) its proximate cause is the object to be given, for giving is possible only when there is that object.

The Perfection of Generosity is well comprehended only when it is studied thoroughly in the eight of these four aspects; when studied thus it would be clearly and completely grasped that dāna is an act that has the characteristic of forsaking or abandoning; at the same time it performs the task of destroying greed that tends to attach the donor to the things to be given away; to the yogi's mind who ponders deeply and carefully it would appear as nonattachment to the objects of offering or it would appear as an act which could produce a favourable existence endowed with wealth and prosperity; dāna is possible only when there exists something for one to offer.
(The same consideration applies to all the remaining Perfections.)

(2) Founded on Mahākaruṇā and Upāya-kosalla Nāṇa wholesome physical and verbal conduct is called Perfection Morality. In terms of Abhidhammā it means abstention from wrong doings that should not be committed (viratī cetasikas) and volition (cetanā) to perform different duties that should be performed.
(a) It has the characteristic of not allowing one' s physical and verbal actions to become wrong but of keeping orientating them wholesome; it also has the characteristic of serving as a foundation of all good deeds; (b) its function is to prevent one from indulging in moral depravities -- three wrong physcial actions and four wrong verbal actions; or it helps one attain virtuous state with, spotless and blameless conduct; (c) it manifests as purity in word and deed when the yogi reflects on its nature. (d) Its proximate cause is moral shame (hiri) and moral dread (ottapa) to do evil.

(3) Founded on Mahākaruṇā and Upāya-kosalla Nāṇa the group of consciousness and mental concomitants which aspire after emancipation from sensual existences after perceiving the faults of objects of sense-desires (vatthu kāma), mental defilements of greed (kilesa kāma) and various existences is the Perfection of Renunciation;
(a) It has the characteristic of emancipation from sense-desires and of sensual existence. (b) Its function is to bring out their faults. (c) Its manifestation is realization by the yogi that it is turning away, withdrawing from these state of sensual existence; (d) it has the religious sense of urgency (Saṃvega Nāna) as its proximate cause.

(4) Founded on Mahākaruṇā and Upāya-kosalla Nāna, the mental concomitant of wisdom which penetrates the ordinary and special characteristics of dhammas is the Perfection of Wisdom.
(a) It has the characteristic of penetrating the real nature of dharnmas; or of unerring discernment of ordinary and special characteristics of objects under contemplation like hitting the bull's eye with an arrow by a skilful archer; (b) its function is to illuminate the object like a lamp (dispelling the darkness of bewilderment, moha, that hides the nature of objects). (c) Itsmanifestation (as toits nature) is non-confusion in the yogi's mind with regard to objects of contemplation like a guide showing the way to travellets who have lost their sense of direction in a forest, or as an effect having the beneficial result of freedom from bewilderment with regard to objects of contemplation. (d) Its proximate cause is concentration (samādhi) or the four Noble Truths.

(5) Founded on Mahākarunā etc., the physical and mental endearours for the welfare of others, is the Perfection of Energy.
(a) It has the characteristic of striving (taking pains); (b) Its function is to support and strengthen the factors which arise together with it so that they will not become lax in performing meritorious deeds. (c) Its manifestation is steadfastness in the yogi's mind which is opposed to sloth and torpor that are detrimental to meritorious deeds. (d) Its proximate cause is the religious sense of urgency (Samvega Nāṇa) or the eight factors that promote exertion (Viriyarambha vatthu).

(Saṃvega Nana: Knowledge formed by dread, ottappa, of dangers--birth, ageing, disease, death, and woeful states.)

Viriyārambha vatthu: The Venerable Mahā Visuddhārama Sayadaw has described in the section on meditation in his Paramattha-sarūpa Bhedani, eight factors that promote exertion (viriyārambha vatthu) -- two concerning repairs and maintenance, two concerning travelling, two concerning illhealth; and two concerning taking of meals.

Two factors concerning repairs and maintenance:

(i) One says to oneself thus:" I have to do some mending of robes etc., While I am engaged thus it will not be easy for me to devote myself to the teaching of the Bhagavā. I shall endeavour to do so in advance before I start mending.",
(ii) On completion of such an undertaking also he considers: "I have finished my mending job; while I was doing it, I could not pay attention to the Teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness."

Two factors concerning travelling:

(i) He reflects, "I have to go on a journey; while going on the journey, it will not be easy to devote my attention to the teaching of the Buddha. I shall endearour to do so in advance before I travel.''
(ii) After the journey, he considers: "I have made the journey; while I was travelling I could not devote my attention to the teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness.''

Two factors concerning ill-health:

(i) He reflects when he begins to suffer slight illness: 'I am feeling indisposed; the ailment may grow worse; I will work hard before it does.'
(ii) While recuperating, he reflects: "I have just recovered from illness; it may recur at any time. I will make an effort before old sickness reappears."

Two factors concerning partaking of meals:

(i) When sufficient alms-food is not available, he reflects: "I have come back from alms-round only with a little food; a small meal keeps my body light and fit, free from sloth and torpor. I shall immediately start putting an effort."
(ii) Having obtained sufficient alms-food, he reflects: "I have come back from alms-round with enough food which will give me strength to work hard; I shall immediately start working energetically.''

These are the eight factors that promote exertion (viriyārambha vatthu). As against these factors, there are eight others which encourage indolence ( Kusita vatthu).

When one has to do some repair, one delays saying:" It will make me tired; I shall have a good sleep before doing the repair." When one has to go on a journey, too, one says in the same manner.

When one starts feeling unwell one complains of one's feebleness and tries to sleep; when one has had enough 'food, one simply dozes, for one' s stomach is heavy. When one has done the repair, or come back from the journey, or recovered from illness, or had meagre food, one grumbles. "I am tired out; I shall take rest." In this way one foolishly excuses oneself for not making efforts to cultivate meritoriousness.

The eight viriyārambha vatthu and eight kusita-vatthu are stated in 10-Sangiti Sutta, Pāthika Vagga of the Digha Nikāya.

(6) Founded on Mahākaruṇā and Upāya-kosalla Nāna, tolerance to wrongdoings of others (or in terms of Abhidhammā, the group of consciousness and mental concomitants that arise in such a mode of tolerance headed by non-aversion,adosa) is the Perfection of Forbearance.
(a) It has the characteristic of bearing with patience. (b) Its function is to overcome both desirable and undesirable objects. (One who is not endowed with endurance adheres to greed when encountering pleasant, desirable objects; and to aversion when encountering unpleasant, undesirable objects. One is then said to be defeated by both desirable objects and undesirable objects. One who is endowed with endurance stands firm against keeping away from both greed and aversion. Forbearance is thus said to overcome all sense objects whether desirable or undesirable.) (c) Its manifestation in the yogr's mind is patient acceptance of both desirable objects and undesirable objects or non-opposition to them. (d) Its proximate cause is seeing things as they really are.

(7) Founded on Mahakaruna and Upaya-kosalla Nana, speaking. the truth and keeping one's word is the Perfection of Truthfulness. (In terms of Abhidhammā, it is the mental concomitant of abstinence (Virati cetasika) of volition (Cetanā cetasika) or wisdom(Paññā cetasika) depending on circumstance.
(a) It has the characteristic of veracity; (b) its function is to make clear the truth as it is. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi's mind is nobility, sweetness and pleasantness. (d) Its proximate cause is purity of deed, word and throught.

(8) Founded on Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Ñāṇa, an unshaken determination to pursue meritoriousness is the Perfection of Resolution. (In terms of Abhidhammā, it is the group of consciousness and mental concomitants arising in such a mode of resolution).
(a) It has the characteristics of unshaken determination in fulfilment of Perfections, Sacrifices, and Moral practices as requisites of Enlightenment; (b) its function is to overcome all demeritoriousness that are opposed to the requisites of Enlightenment. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi's mind is steadfastness in fulfilment of the requisities of Enlightenment. (d) Its proximate cause is the requisifies of Enlightenment.

(9) Founded on Mahāarunā and Upāya-kosalla Ñāna, service to the 'welfare and happiness of the world is the Perfection of Lovingkindness it is the mental concomitant of non-aversion, the adosa cetasika in terms of Abhidhammā.

(a) It has the characteristic of wishing prosperity to all beings. (b) Its function is to work for the welfare of beings in fulfilment of that wish; (or) its function is removing the nine causes of resentment⁶ (c) Its manifestation in the yogi's mind is serenity. (d) Its proximate cause is seeing beings as agreeable. (No development of loving-kindness is possible if one looks at them as disagreeable ones.)

(10) Founded on Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Nāna the attitude of impartiality towards desirable and undersirable conditioned beings, discarding love and hate, is the Perfection of Equanimity, (in terms of Abhidhammā it is the mental concomitant of equipoise, Tatramajjhattatā) which arises in such modes.

(a) It has the characteristic of taking up the mental position between love and hate. (b) Its function is to have an impartial view. (c) Its marifestation in the yogi's mind is allaying both love and hate. (d) Its proximate cause is reflection that all beings are owner of their own deeds, Kamma.
Each of the above descriptions of the Perfections begins with the qualifying words "Founded on Mahākaruntā and Upāya-kosalla Ñāṇa.' These two attributes form the basic virtues ever present in the mental continuum of Bodhisattas and only acts of dāna, sīla etc., thus rounded on them constitute the Pāramis.

6. What are the basic conditions of the Pāramīs?
Briefly stated, they are:

A. Great aspiration (Abhinihāra);
B. Great Compassion and skill in ways and means, (Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Nāna) ;
C. Four grounds for Buddhahood (Buddhabhūmi);
D. Sixteen mental dispositions (Ajjhāsaya);
E. Reflective knowledge (Paccavekkana Nana) of disadvantages of non-giving, etc., and advantages of giving, etc.
F. Fifteen kinds of conduct (Carana) and five kinds of higher knowledges, (Abhinna), together with their contributory causes.

To expand:

(A) Great aspiration (Abhinihara).

(abhi means towards Omniscience; mhara means ' directing' or 'applying the mind'; hence 'aspiration for Omniscient Buddhahood'.)

Here, the eight factors, required for receiving the prophecy of Buddhahood, described in the Chapter on 'Rare appearance of a Buddha' in Volume One, Part One, may be recalled.

In an existence complete with the eight factors (like that of Sumedha) the following thoughts occur in the mind of the Boddhisattas (like Sumedha the Wise) without being aroused by anyone, but only by being endowed with the same eight factors.

When I have crossed the ocean of samsara myself with my own effort, I shall also rescue other beings; when I have freed myself from the bonds of samsara, I shall also liberate other beings; when I have tamed my sense faculties, I shall teach other beings so that they become tame; when I have extinguished the fires of mental defilements in my self, I shall calm the burning minds of other beings; when I have gained the most excellent comfort of Nibbāna, I shall let other beings enjoy the 'same; when I have extinguished in me the flames of the three rounds of rebirths⁷, I shall put out those flames raging in other beings; When I have purified myself of the dust of defilements through my own effort, I shall cause purification of other beings, when I have gained knowledge of the four Noble Truths, I shall teach them to other beings. (In short, I shall strive to become a Buddha and go to the rescue of all other beings.)"

Thus the aspiration to Buddhahood arises fervently, continously, as great meritorious consciousness (Mahākusala Citta) together with its mental concomitants. These meritorious consciousness and mental concomitants which aspire to Buddhahood are known as the great meritorious Abhinihāra, which forms the basic condition for all the ten Perfections.

Indeed, it is only through the arising of this great aspiration that the Bodhisattas receive the definite prophecy of Buddhahood; after receiving the prophecy, there occur in succession, reflection on the Pāramis, resolution to fulfil them and necessary practices that take him to the sublime height of accomplishment.

This great aspiration has the characteristic of inclination of the mind towards Omniscience; its function is to aspire after Buddhahood and having gained it, to wish for the ability to bring welfare and happiness to all beings until they attain Nibbāna; its manifestation in the yogi's mind is its being. the basic cause of the requisities for Enlightenment; its proximate cause is Great Compassion (or, the completion of necessary supporting conditions to be explained later).

This great aspiration has as its object the inconceivable province of the Buddhas and the welfare of the whole immeasurable world of beings; it should thus be seen as the basis of actions such as perfections, sacrifices and practices, and the most exalted meritoriousness which is endowed with incomparable power.

To deal briefly with this unique power:

As soon as the great aspiration arises the Great Being Bodhisatta is poised to enter the great field of performance for attainment of Omniscience (Mahābodhiyāna patipatti); he is then destined to become a Buddha; this destiny is irreversible after the arising in him of this great Abhinihāra and thereby gains the designation of 'Bodhisatta'. (One is not entitled to be called a Bodhisatta until one possesses Abhinihāra. )

From that time onwards, the Bodhisatta becomes fully inclined to the attainment of Omniscience, and the power to fulfil and practice Pāramī Cāga, Cariya, the requisites for Enlightenment become established in him.

Because he had possessed this great meritorious Abhinihāra, Sumedha the Hermit correctly investigated all the Pāramis with Perfection-investigating Wisdom (Pāramī-pavicaya Ñāna)⁸. This wisdom was achieved by himself without the help of a teacher and was therefore known also as Sayambhū Ñāna which was the forerunner of Omniscience. Having thought about and investigated the Pāramīs clearly and correctly, he fulfilled and practised them for the duration of four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons.

This great aspiration has
(a) four conditions (paccaya),
(b) four causes (hetu), and
(c) four powers (bala).

(a) The four conditions (remote factors) are:

(i) When the Great Being who aspires to become a Buddha sees a Tathāgata performing a miracle, he thinks; "Omniscience is of tremendous power; by acquiring it, the Buddha has come to be of such wonderful and marvellous nature and to possess such inconceivable power. ''Having witnessed the Buddha's powers he is inclined towards Omniscience.

(ii) Although he does not himself see the Tathāgata's great power, he hears from others: "The Exalted One is endowed with such and such powers". Having heard thus, he is inclined towards Omniscience.

(iii) Although he neither witnesses nor hears of the Tathāgata's great powers, he learns a discourse on the powers of a Buddha. Having learned thus, he is inclined towards Omniscience.

(iv) Although he neither sees the powers of a Tathāgata nor learns about it from others, nor hears a discourse concerning them, since he has a very noble disposition, he thinks thus: "I will protect the heritage, lineage, tradition and law of the Buddhas." Because of this high reverence for Dhamma (Dhammagaru) he is inclined towards Omniscience.

(b) The four causes (immediate factors) are:

(i) The Great Being is endowed with the immediate support (upanissaya) of having performed special acts of merit (adhikāra) under former Buddhas.

(ii) He is naturally endowed with compassionate temperament and is willing to alleviate the suffering of beings even at the sacrifice of his life.

(iii) He is endowed with energy and strength to strive long until he achieves his goal of Buddhahood, without feeling discouraged by the suffering in samsāra and hardships in working for the welfare of beings.

(iv) He enjoys the friendship of good people who restrain him from doing evil and encourage him to develop what is good.

Of these four causes, being endowed with immediate support (upanissaya sampadā) means that, because the Great Being has resolved mentally or verbally in the presence of former Buddhas (the Texts do not say how many of them), for Buddhahood he is always inclined toward Omniscience; he is always inclined also to work for the welfare of beings.

Because he is endowed with such immediate support he becomes sharply distinguished from those who would become Pacceka Buddhas (Pacceka Bodhisattas) or Disciples of Buddhas (Sāvaka Bodhisatta) in respect of (a) faculties (indriyas), (b) of practices for the welfare of others (c) of skill in serving the interest of others and in knowing right from wrong (Thānāthāna kosalla Ñāṇa). (From these three qualities, it may be deduced that the Bodhisattas have done special deeds of merit under former Buddhas).

As for association with good friends, by 'good friend' is meant those who are possessed of eight attributes, namely, faith, morality, learning, sacrifice, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.

Being endowed with faith, a good friend has confidence in Omniscience of the Exalted One and one"s own deeds (kamma) and the fruits thereof. Because of such faith, he does not give up this wish for the welfare of beings; the wish is the basic cause for Supreme Enlightenment.

Being endowed with morality, he is dear to beings who hold him in esteem and reverence. Being accomplished in learning he usually gives profound discourses which lead to the welfare and happiness of beings. Being accomplished in sacrifice, he is of few wants, easily contented, detached from sense pleasures, remaining aloof from them.

Being endowed with energy, he always strives to promote the welfare of beings. Being endowed with mindfulness he never neglects to do deeds of merit. Being accomplished in concentration, he becomes a person of undistracted, concentrated mind. Being endowed with wisdom, he understands things as they really are.

Through mindfulness, the good friend examines the results of meritorious and demeritorious actions; he understands truly through wisdom what is beneficial or harmful to beings; through concentration he keeps his mind steady, and through energy, he restrains beings from what will bring harm to them and directs them to strive hard with unremitting zeal for their well-being.

Associating with and relying on the good friend who is possessed of such qualities, the Bodhisatta endeavours to strengthen his own accomplishment in his immediate support (upanissaya sampatti). With clear purified wisdom and extreme purity of deed and word achieved through persistent endeavours, he becomes accomplished in the four great powers. Before long, he comes to possess the eight factors required for receiving the prophecy, shows the great aspiration (Mahābhinihāra) boldly, and becomes established firmly as a true Bodhisatta. From then onwards, he has no aspiration other than Supreme Enlightenment. He becomes a noble person with a fixed, irreversible destination of full Enlightenment.

(c) The four great powers are:

(i) Internal power (ajjhattikabala): (Extreme inclination towards Omniscience or Sammasambodhi through reliance on ones'physical ability, with reverence for the Dhamma (Dhamma gārava), the last of the aforesaid four conditions.) Exercising this power, having self-reliance and sense of shame (for doing evil), the Bodhisatta aspires to Buddhahood, fulfils the Perfections and attains Supreme Enlightenment.

(ii) External power (bāhirabala): (Extreme inclination towards Omniscience through reliance on external power, the first three of the four conditions described above.) Exercising this power, relying upon the outside world, being supported by pride and selfconfidence, "I am a person fully equipped with powers to attain Buddhahood," the Bodhisatta aspires after Buddhahood, fulfils Perfections and attains Supreme Enlightenment.

(iii) Power of supporting conditions (upanissaya bala): (Extreme inclination towards Omniscience through reliance on the first of the four conditions.) Exercising this power, being endowed with sharp faculties and natural purity and being supported by mindfulness, the Bodhisatta aspires to Buddhahood, fulfils the Perfections and attains Supreme Enlightenment.

(iv) Power of exertion (payoga bala): (Being endowed with appropriate and sufficient energy for the attainment of Omniscience, thorough and persistent pursuit of supporting conditions and meritorious acts.) Exercising this power being endowed with purity of deed and word, and constantly engaged in meritorious acts, the Bodhisatta aspires after Buddhahood, fulfils Perfections and attains Supreme Enlightenment.

Complete with these four conditions, four causes, four powers, by the time the Bodhisatta reaches the stage of development as in the existence of Sumedha the Wise, he acquires the eight factors which entitle him to receive the prophecy of Buddhahood. Actuated by the acquisition of these eight factors, as stated above, the great aspiration which is meritorious consciousness and its concomitants, arises: "I will strive with unremitting zeal to become a Buddha and go to the rescue of all beings." This great meritorious Abhinihara forms a basic condition for all the Perfections.

Great Marvels.

Because of the arising of the great meritorious Abhinihāra in him, the following marvels come to be attributed to the noble Bodhisatta: (i) he treats all beings with love like his own children; (ii) his mind is not defiled through demeritoriousness (he remains undisturbed and untainted by defilements); (iii) all his intentions, actions and words are for promoting the welfare and happiness of beings, and (iv) fulfilment of the Pāramīs, and practice of Caga and Cariya instead of diminishing, become more and more pronounced and mature in him.

Because of the arising in him of these marvels the Bodhisatta is endowed with the 'stream' of the most sublime meritoriousness and benevolence. As a result, he becomes worthy of receiving excellent gifts, and an incomparable fertile field where seeds of merit may be sown, establishing himself as an object of highest homage and reverence for beings.

B. Great Compassion and Skilfulness (Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Nana).

Like the great meritorious Abhinihāra, Mahākarunā and Upaya kosalla Ñāṇa form basic conditions for all the Perfections. (These two conditions have been dealt with above). Through them Bodhisattas are able to promote constantly the welfare and happiness of other beings, without concern for their own interest. Although performing the duties of Bodhisattas which are beyond the capability of ordinary men, they do not consider them too wearisome.

Because Mahākaruntā and Upāya-kosalla Nāṇa exist in them, welfare and happiness accrue to those who develop confidence in them, who show respect to them, who have occasion to see Bodhisatta or recollect their virtues.

To explain further: Of compassion and Wisdom, it is through Wisdom that a Bodhisatta attains Omniscience; it is through compassion, that he performs the duties of a Buddha. Through Wisdom, he is able to across the ocean of samsāra,' through compassion, he goes to the rescue of beings. Through Wisdom, he understands thoroughly suffering of others; through Compassion, he endeavours to alleviate their suffering; through Wisdom he becomes wearied of suffering; through Compassion, he accepts the same disgusting suffering as happiness in order to work for the liberation of beings. Through Wisdom he aspires after Nibbāna; through Compassion, he continues to go round and round in samsara.

Thus, Compassion and Wisdom are benificial in many ways. These two not only form the foundation of the Pāramīs; they are the basic condition of the Aspiration after Buddhahood as well.

C. Four grounds for Buddhahood (Buddhabhūmi).

Like the Aspiration, Compassion and Wisdom, the following four factors also form basic conditions of the Pāramīs.

(a) Endeavour (Ussaha): It is the endeavour for the fulfilment of the Perfections, sacrifices and practices (Pāramī, Caga, Cariya).

(b) Higher Intelligence (Ummanga): It is the skill in ways and means, Upāya-kosalla Nana, already mentioned above.

(d) Beneficial practice (Hitacariya): It is development of loving-kindness and compassion.

These four factors are known as grounds for Buddhahood since they are conducive to arising of Omniscience.

D. Sixteen mental dispositions (Ajjhāsaya).

(Mental disposition is inclination or temperament, which influences the formation of one' s personality. It is basically of two types: good and bad.) There are sixteen dispositions of good type, namely, inclination towards renunciation (nekkhammajjhāsaya); to solitude (pavivekajjhāsaya); to non-greed (lobhajjhāsaya); to nonhatred (adosajjhāsaya); to non-delusion (amohajjhāsaya); to liberation (nissaranajjhāsaya); and to inclination towards each of the ten Pāramīs (dānajjhtāsaya, silajjhāsaya etc).

Because of their intense inclination for renunciation, Bodhisattas see danger in sense-pleasures and household life; because of their intense inclination for solitude, they see danger in company and social life; because of their intense inclination for non-greed, nonhatred, and non-delusion, they see danger in greed, hatred and delusion; because of their intense inclination for liberation, they see danger in all forms of existence: The Pāramis do not arise in him who does not see danger in greed etc., and who has no intense inclination to non-greed, etc., Therefore the six inclinations for nongreed, etc., are also the conditions of the Pararnis.

Likewise, the tell inclinations to generosity (danajjhāsaya), etc., form conditions of the Pāramis. Danajjhāsaya means constant inclination for generosity through intensity of non-greed by seeing danger in its opposites.

Because of intense inclination for non-greed, Bodhisattas see danger in its opposites i.e. selfishness, and therefore fulfil the Perfection of Generosity; because of intense inclination for morality, they see danger in moral depravity and therefore fulfil the Perfection of Morality. The same consideration applies to all the remaining Perfections.

It should be particularly noted here that the opposites of inclination for renunciation are sense pleasures and household life; for wisdom are delusion (moha) and doubt (vicikicchā); for energy is indolence (kosajja); for forbearance is resentment (akkhanti, dosa); for truthfulness is speaking lies;. for resolution is indetermination (not being firm in pursuit of merit); for lovingkindness is ill-will; for equanimity is (submission to) vicissitudes of the world.

Because of their intense inclination for equanimity, Bodhisattas see dangers in its opposite, namely, (submission to) vicissitudes of the world and fulfil the Perfection of Equanimity. In this way, the ten inclinations such as those for generosity, etc., also form conditions of the Pāramis.

E. Reflective knowledge (Paccavekkhanā Ñāna) of the disadvantages of non-giving, etc., and of advantages of giving, etc.

Reflective knowledge of the disadvantages of not fulfilling the ten Perfections such as generosity, morality, etc., and of the advantages of fulfilling them also form basic conditions of the Pāramīs.

(This section should be carefully studied by those who aspire after Buddhahood).

1. Detailed method of reflecting on the Perfection of Generosity.

Personal possessions such as land, gold, silver, cattle, buffaloes, female slaves, male slaves, children, wives, etc., bring great harm to their owners who become attached to them. Because they are the objects of sense desires, coveted by many people; they can be taken away or destroyed by five enemies (water, fire, kings, thieves and unloved heirs); they cause quarrels and disputes; they are insubstantial; their acquisition and protection necessitate harassment of others; their destruction leads to intense suffering such as sorrow, lamentation, etc.; through attachment to them those who are filled with stinginess (macchariya) are bound to be reborn in the realms of suffering. Thus these possessions bring much harm to the possessor in diverse manners; giving them away, forsaking them, renouncing them is the only means of escape to happiness". A Bodhisatta should reflect in this manner and practise mindfulness so as not to be remiss in acts of generosity.

A Bodhisatta should also reflect in the following manner whenever a supplicant presents himself for alms: "He is a very intimate friend, confiding all his personal secrets to me; he instructs me well how to take along with me by this means (of dāna) to the next existences my possession which I will have to leave behind otherwise; he is a great friend who assists me in removing to a safe place my possessions from this world which like a blazing house is raging with the fires of death; He is to me like an excellent storehouse where my possessions can be kept safe from burning'; and "He is my best friend, for by enabling me to perform the act of generosity he helps me achieve the most eminent and difficult of all attainments, the attainment of the ground for Buddhahood (Buddha bhūmi) . "

Likewise, he should reflect thus: "This man has favoured me with an oppotunity to do a most noble deed; I should therefore seize this oppotunity without fail;" "My life will certainly come to an end; I should therefore give even when not asked, (indeed I should do) all the more when asked"; Bodhisattas who are intensely inclined towards generosity go about searching for someone to receive their alms; in my case, a supplicant has come on his own accord to receive my offering because of my merit"; "Although an act of generosity is shown to recipients, true to its nature it benefits me only;" "I should benefit all these beings as I benefit myself"; "How could I fulfil the Perfection of Generosity if there were no one to receive my offering"; "I should acquire and accumulate properties only for those who may ask"; "When would they come and avail themselves of my belongings freely on their own accord without asking me?"; "In what way could I endear myself to recipients and how could they become friendly with me;" "How would I rejoice while giving and after giving?"; "How would recipients come to me and inclination for giving them develop in me"; "How would I know their mind and give them (what they need) without their asking?"; "When I have things to offer and supplicants to receive, should I fail to give them it would be a great deception on my part"; ' How would I sacrifice my life and limb to those who come for them?. He should thus constantly develop propensity to perform acts of generosity.

Just as a hopping insect (kitaka)⁹ springs back to one who throws it away without any concern, good results come back to one who has performed dāna generously without expecting any reward" reflecting thus he should develop the mind which does not wish or expect any fruit out of his act. (Here fruit means celestial or human bliss but not attainment of Buddhahood).

Mental attitude at the time of offering.

When the recipient of alms happens to be a dear person, he should be glad by reflecting, "One who is dear to me asks me for something"; if the recipient is a neutral person, he should be glad by reflecting, 'By making this offering to him, I will surely gain his friendship"; if the recipient is a hostile person, he should specially rejoice by refiecting,"My enemy asks for some thing; by this offering to him, he will surely become a dear friend of mine.'

Thus he should make an offering to a neutral person or a foe in the same way he does to a dear person with compassion preceded by loving-kindness.

When in great difficulty.

If the aspirant to Buddhahood finds himself so attached to objects of offering that relinquishing is impossible through greed with which he is imbued over long stretches of time, he should reflect thus: 'You, good man, aspiring after Buddhahood, when you resolved to attain it, in order to assist and support beings, did you not give up this body as well as the good deeds done by sacrificing it and the fruits thereof. Even then you are now attached to external objects; it is like the bathing of an elephant. So you should not remain attached to any object.

(Other animals bathe to wash their bodies. Elephants bathe not to clean themselves, but to crush and destroy lotus shoots and stems. Just as an elephant's bathing is futile, attachment to external object will not be fruitful, will not bring about the benefit of Buddhahood.)

Suppose there is a medicine tree; those in need of its roots., take away its roots; those in need of its crust, bark, trunk, fork, heartwood, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, take whatever they need. Although thus stripped of its roots, crust, etc., the medicine tree is not disturbed with such a thought as "They have deprived me of my possessions.'

Likewise, the Bodhisatta should reflect thus: "I, who have worked strenuously for the welfare of beings, should not entertain even one iota of wrong thought in serving others by making use of this body which is miserable, ungrateful and unclean. The four great elements whether internal (of the body) or external (of the outside world) are all subject of decomposition, dissolution; there is no distinction between internal and external elements. In the absence of such distinction, attachment to this body, thinking "This is mine, this am I, this is myself' is apparently a mere display of activity by delusion¹⁰. So without regard for my hands, feet, eyes, flesh and blood, as in the case of external objects, I should be prepared to give up my whole body, thinking," Let those who need any of them take it away."

When he reflects in this way, with no regard for his life and limb, relinquishing them for the sake of self-enlightenment, his deeds, words, and thoughts easily become more and more purified. The Bodhisatta who is thus purified in physical, verbal and mental actions, comes to possess purity of livelihood, and becomes established in the practice of the true path leading to Nibbāna. He gains accompli, shment also in the knowledge of what is detrimental and what is beneficial, as a result, he becomes indeed a person who is capable of rendering more and more services to all beings through gift of material goods (vatthu dāna) gift of harmlessness (abhayadāna) and gifts of Dhamma (Dhammadana).

(This is the detailed treatment of the Bodhisatta's reflect ion on the Perfection of Generosity.)

2. Detailed treatment of reflection on the perfection of Morality.

Morality is the Dhamma water which can wash away mental defilements that cannot be removed by the waters of the Ganges, etc., Morality acts as a good medicament to eradicate the heat of passion which cannot be assuaged by the yellow sandalwood, etc., It is the ornament of the wise, having nothing in common with the adornments such as necklaces, diadems and earrings of ordinary people.

It is a kind of natural perfume whose fragrance pervades all directions and which is suitable for all occassions; it is an excellent mantra of spell-binding power (vasikarana mantam) which commands homage and reverence of the high-born humans such as kings, brahmins, etc., and of Devas and Brahmas; it is a stairway to Deva and Brahma worlds. It serves as a means of gaining Jhānas and Abhinnas, a high-way leading to the great city of Nibbāna, the foundation of the three forms of Enlightenment. As it fulfils all that one wishes, it is superior to the wish-fulfilling gem (cintamani) and the tree of plenty (kappa rukkha). Thus should one reflect on the attributes of morality.

(The commentary recommends the Aggikkhandhopama Sutta, etc., for reflecting on the faults of not being endowed with morality. The following is a summary of the Aggikkhandhopama Sutta mentioned in the Sattaka Nipāta, Anguttara Nikāya.)

At one time the Buddha was touring in the country of Kosala accompanied by many bhikkhus. On seeing a blazing fire at one place he left the high way and sat down on the seat of four - folded robe prepared by the Venerable Ananda at the foot of a tree.

Then the Buddha addressed the bhikkhus:
(i) Bhikkhus, which would be better, to sit and lie down embracing a raging flame or to sit and lie down embracing a damsel of high birth with a lovely soft body, pleasant to the touch. Bhikkhus responded (unwisely) that it would be better to sit and lie down, embracing a damsel?

The Buddha explained that for an immoral person, it would be better to sit and lie down embracing a raging flame for it would cause suffering for one existence only whereas embracing a damsel would lead them to lower realms (existence).

He continued to question the bhikkhus:

(ii) Would it be better to be tormented by a strong man who rough up ones legs with a leather tether until the skin, flesh, muscles and bones are all torn and crushed, or to take delight in the homage paid by the faithful?

(iii) Would it be better to have one's chest pierced by a strong man with a sharp spear or to be paid homage by the faithful?

(iv) Would it be better to have your body enveloped in a red hot iron plate by a strong man or to make use of the robe offered by the faithful?

(v) Would it be better to have your mouth opened and held up with a red hot iron prop and to have a burning hot lump of iron thrown into it so that it burns up all the internal organs (the lips, palate, tongue, throat, chest, stomach and intestines) along its way to the lower orifice. of the body or to partake of the alms-food offered by the faithful?

(vi) Would it be better to be seized firmly by the head or shoulder by a strong man and forcibly pushed down to sit or lie down on an iron couch which is burning red hot or to make use of the couch or divan offered by the faithful?

(vii) Would it better to be held upside down by a strong man and flung into a big pan of boiling iron or to dwell in a monastery offered by the faithful.

To all these six latter questions, the bhikkhus answers (unwisely) as they did to the first question. The Buddha gives answers similar to that given to the first one, namely, that for an immoral person, it would be better to have one's legs torn and crushed, to be pierced by a sharp spear, etc., for they would cause suffering for one existence only; whereas to take delight in the homage paid by the faithful, to be paid homage by the faithful, etc., would lead to the woeful realms of intense suffering where they would remain for a long time.

The Buddha ends his discourse with these words:

In order to bring utmost benefit to the faithful donors, who offer requisites and to make one's life advantageous in the Order, a bhikkhu should undergo the three Trainings (sikkhā)¹¹; a bhikkhu wishing his own. welfare as well as that of others must be ever mindful and diligent.

At the end of the discourse, sixty immoral bhikkhus vomitted hot blood; sixty bhikkhus who had infringed light disciplinary rules left the Order for household life; sixty bhikkhus who had led a pure life attained Arahantship.

(This is a summary of the Aggikkhandopama Sutta.)

One should continue reflecting on the attributes of morality in this manner also thus:

A moral person takes delight in the thought,' I have done a faultless, good deed which protects one from harm.' He is free from danger of self-reproach or reproach by others who are wise; to him there is no possibility of punishment, or of destination in woeful states. He is praised by the wise who say'. This man is moral and of good conduct. Unlike an immoral person he is absolutely free from remorse:''

Since morality is the root cause of mindfulness; since it brings manifold benefit such as prevention of loss of one's wealth (bhogavyasana), etc., and since it eradicates demeritoriousness, it is the best source of one' s prosperity and' well being.

Even a person of low caste, when endowed with morality, receives homage and respect from person of high birth such as kings, brahmins etc; thus accomplishment in morality excels high birth or caste.

The wealth of moral virtues surpasses that of external materials because it cannot be endangered by five enemies; it follows one to the next existence; its benefit is great and it 'serves as a foundation for development of concentration and wisdom.

Even those so-called rulers in the world have no control over their own minds, only those who are moral have control over their minds (cittissariya). Therefore morality is superior to the authority of kings, etc.

Those who are moral, gain the attribute of Supremacy (issariya) in their respective existences.

[ 37 ] Morality is superior even to life itself as the Buddha explains that a single day in the life of a person with morality is far better than a hundred years in the life of an immoral one and that mere living without any moral virtue amounts to death.

Because a moral person is esteemed even by his enemy and because he cannot be vanquished by ageing, sickness and misfortunes his morality transcends his physical beauty. As it is the foundation for states of happiness of Devas or Nibbāna, it is far superior to the best mansions and palaces or to the highest status and positions of kings, princes or general.

Morality is better than one' s relatives and friends who are solicitous of one's well-being because it truly promotes one's welfare and interest and follows one closely to the next existence.

Morality serves as a special body guard, protecting this body which is difficult to be guarded against harm even by the four divisions of an army or by such devices as drugs, spells and charms.

When one reflects that "morality is full of innumerable qualities", one's imperfect morality will become perfect or one's impure morality will become pure.

Should aversion in his life continuum antithetical to morality and having accumulative effect occurs to the aspirant for Buddhahood from time to time, he should reflect thus:

"Have you not resolved to attain Arahattamagga Ñāna and Omniscience? If your morality is defective, you cannot prosper even in mundane matters, let alone in supramundane one's. The Omniscience you aspire to is the highest of all achievements. Since Morality is the foundation of Omniscience your morality should be of very high quality. Therefore you should be a person who regards morality with much affection.''

[ 38 ] Or, You should teach Dhamma and save beings by three vehicles of such characteristics as anicca, dukkha and anatta; you should also help immature beings in the five faculites of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom, reach maturity. Just as the treatment of a doctor who gives wrong prescription is untrustworthy, even so the word of an immoral person is unreliable to many. Therefore, reflecting, as a trustworthy person how could I save them and help them reach maturity in those faculties you should be pure in morality.

Furthermore, only when I have special attributes such as attainments of Jhāna, etc., will I be able to help others and fulil the Perfections such as Wisdom,etc., And such special attributes as attaiment of Jhāna, etc., are not possible without pure morality. Therefore you should be a person of naturally pure morality."

Reflecting thus, the Bodhisatta should earnestly strive to purify his morality.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Morality.)

3. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Renunciation.

The Bodhisatta should reflect on the disadvantages of a household life which is constricted with duties towards one's wife and children, and on the advantage of the life of a bhikkhu, which like space is free and vast being exempted from such obligations.

As explained in the Dukkhakkhandha Sutta (of the Majjhima Nikāya) one should dwell upon the fact that sensual objects are more of worry and lamentation than of enjoyment and so on; upon suffering from contact with heat, cold, gadflies, mosquitoes, flies, wind, sun, reptiles, fleas, insects, etc., while in quest of senseobjects, as motivated by sense-desires; upon pain and distress when one's laborious quest for sense-objects ends up fruitless; upon worry and anxiety for their security against the five enemies after they have [ 39 ] been acquired; upon great suffering caused by terrible wars waged through desire for sense objects; upon the thirty-two kinds of severe punishment (kamma-karaṇa) meted out in this life to those who have committed crimes through sense-desires; upon terrible suffering in the life beyond in the four realms of miserable existences.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Renunciation.)

4. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Wisdom.

Without wisdom such Perfections as Generosity, etc., cannot become pure; and volition for giving, volition for observing morality, etc., cannot perform their respective functions. In this manner, one should reflect on the attributes of wisdom.

Without life, this bodily mechanism loses its significience and cannot function properly. Without consciousness, the sense faculties of eye, ear, etc., cannot perform their respective functions of seeing, hearing, etc., Similarly, the faculties of faith, energy, etc., cannot do their respective duties effectively in the absence of wisdom. Therefore wisdom is the main and chief cause for the fulfilment of Perfections such as generosity, etc.

How wisdom helps fulfilment of other Perfections.

(a) Because they keep their eyes of wisdom always open, even when Bodhisattas give away their limbs and organs, they do so without extolling themselves or disparaging others. (As mentioned above) like the great medicine-tree they give without developing wrong thoughts, and are always filled with joy in the past, present and future.

Only when endowned with wisdom does one become equipped with Upāya-kosalla Ñāna and gives for the benefit of others; and only such an act of generosity is a genuine perfection. (Without wisdom, one is likely to give with the motivation of self-interest; such an act of generosity for one' s own benefit is like earning interest for oneself from an investment.)

[ 40 ] (b) Morality without wisdom but overwhelmed by greed, ill-will, etc., cannot achieve purity, much less serve as foundation of Omniscience.

(c) Only a person of wisdom discerns faults in the household state and benefits of an ascetic life faults in sensuous pleasures and benefits of attaining Jhānas, faults in samsāra and benefits of Nibbāna. Discerning thus,he goes forth into homelessness, develops Jhānas and realizes for himself Nibbāna. He can then help others to go forth and get established in Jhāna and Nibbāna.

(d) Energy without wisdom is wrong striving; it does not serve the purpose desired. (It is better not to strive at all than to make wrong application of energy.) When accompanied by wisdom, it becomes right endeavour achieving the required object.

(e) Only a person of wisdom can bear with patience wrongs done by others; for one devoid of wisdom, offensive actions by others incite in him unwholesome state such as ill-will, etc., which go against forbearance. For the wise, such wrongs help him develop patience and shengthen it.

(f) Only a person of wisdom comprehends the three truths as they really are - truth of abstinence (viratī sacca), truth of speech (vacī sacca), truth of Knowledge (ñāṇa sacca); their causes and opposites. Having understood them himself perfectly (by abandoning what should be abandoned and cultivating what should be cultivated) he could help others keep to the Path of Truth.

(g) Having fortified himself with the power of wisdom, a wise person becomes accomplished in concentration. With concentrated mind, unshakable determination to fulfil all the Perfections is possible.

(h) Only a man of wisdom can direct his thoughts of lovingkindness towards the three types of person without discriminating them as dear ones, neutras or enemies.

[ 41 ] (i) And only by means of wisdom can one remain indifferent to vicissitudes of life (whether good or bad) without being affected by them.

In this way, one should reflect on the attributes of wisdom, realizing it to be the cause for the purification of the Perfections.

Or, the Bodhisatta should admonish himself thus:
Without wisdom, there can be no perfect and pure view; without perfect and pure view, there can be no perfect and pure morality; without perfect and pure morality, there can be no perfect and pure concentration. Without concentration one cannot work out one's benefit, much less others'. Therefore, practising as you are for the welfare of others, should you not make an earnest effort to develop your wisdom?

For it is by the power of wisdom that the Bodhisatta becomes established on the four foundations¹², benefits all beings with four objects of support¹³, helps them remain on the path of liberation and brings their five faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom to maturity.

Likewise, by the power of wisdom, he engages in the investigation of absolute realities such as aggregates (khandha), sense-bases (āyatanas) etc., and comes to understand truthfully the processes of Samsāra and its cessation; he endeavours to bring his meritorious deeds such as Perfection of Generosity, etc., to the most beneficial stage of development and to enjoy the profits of the Path and Fruition; thus he works to complete and perfect the training of Bodhisattas.

[ 42 ] Comprehending the various virtues of Wisdom in this manner he should repeatedly develop the Perfection of Wisdom.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Wisdom.)

5. Detail treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Energy.

Even in worldly pursuits the end of which is foreseeable, one cannot achieve the desired goal without necessary energy; but there is nothing which a man with indefatigable energy cannot achieve. It should be reflected that "One lacking energy cannot even begin the task of rescuing all beings from the whirlpool of saṃsāra; one with moderate energy will undertake the task, only to give it up halfway without pursuing it to the end; it is only the person with superior kind of energy who will see to the completion of the task, without regard to one's personal well-being, to relise the goal (Omniscience)."

Again, without sufficient energy even aspirants for Sāvaka-Bodhi or Pacceka-Bodhi¹⁴, intent on liberating themselves from samsara cannot achieve their desired goal of Enlightenment. How can one aspiring after Perfect SelfEnlightenment rescue the entire world of beings with Devas and Brahmas without sufficient exertion?"

A host of defilements such as greed, hatred, etc., are as hard to restrain as elephants in must; one's actions (Kammas), that happen out of these defilements are like executioners holding high their swords and threatening to put one to death; the four woeful states caused by these kammas have their doors constantly open; evil friends are always around to instigate one to commit these Kammas and thus despatch one to these states of woe; the nature of a foolish worldling is such that he succumbs easily to the ill advice of such [ 43 ] evil friends; one should therefore keep oneself away from these evil friends who are sophists, who put forward their wrong, irrational argument, saying,"If emancipation from samsāra were a reality it should be achieved automactically without any, need to strive for it". Dissociation from such wrong sayings is possible only through the power of energy."

Or, "If Buddhahood is attainable through personal effort, what difficulty can be there for a superior person like me to put forth the required energy?."

In this manner the attributes of energy should be reflected upon.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Energy).

6. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Forbearance.

Forbearance dispels anger which is opposed to all wholesome attributes and serves as an indestructible weapon of good people in the acquisition of such attributes; it is the adornment of Bodhisattas who can dominate others; the strength of samanas and brāhmanas; a stream of water that extinguishes the fire of anger; a magic charm for neutralizing the poison of rude, abusive word of evil persons; it is the natural disposition of those established in the faculties of restraint and of those supremely wise one.
Forbearance is a faculty deep like an ocean; the shore where the waves of the ocean terminate; the door that closes the way to the realms of misery; the stairway that ascends to the realms of Devas and Brahmas, the sanctum where all wholesome attributes reign; the supreme purity of body, speech and mind. Thus one should reflect on the virtues of forbearance.
Again, forbearance should be cultivated repeatedly by reflecting thus: 'Without holding on to forbearance which gives calm and peace, these beings pursue demeritorious deeds which afflict them, in consequence they are subjected to affliction in this life as well as in the life to come."
[ 44 ] "Although it is true that I suiffer through wrongs of others, this body of mine which serves as a field and the action which serve as seeds of that suffering have been done by none other than myself."
This forebearance of mine is the means of settling the debt of suffering.
If there were no wrong doers how could I fulfil the Perfection of Forebearance?
Although this person has wronged me now he had brought certain benefits to me in the past.
His wrong deed forms a cause for my practice of forbearance, and it therefore proves beneficial to me.
All these beings are like my own children, how could a wise man become angry about the misdeeds of his own children?
He has wronged me as he is seized by the demon of wrath; I should exorcise this demon that has seized him.
I am also the cause of the wrong deed which gives rise to this suffering, (for if I were not in existence, there could be no wrongdoing.)
The mental and physical phenomena (nāma-rūpa) which did the wrong deed, and the mental and physical phenomena, (nāma-rūpa) to which the wrong deed was done, both sets of such phenomena at this very moment have ceased. Who should then be angry with whom? There should be no arising of anger.
And, "when all the phenomena are non-self in the absolute sense, there could be no wrong doer and no one to whom any wrong is done." Reflecting in this manner, he should repeatedly develop forbearance.

Should the anger that arises from wrongs done by others continue to overpower one' s mind through force of habit gained for a long time, the aspirant for Buddhahood should reflect thus:

Forbearance is a complementary to practices which oppose the wrongs of others.

[ 45 ] "Wrongs of others, by causing my suffering, become a factor of arising in me of faith; (since suffering is the cause of faith) and also a factor of the perception of unhappiness and dissatisfaction with the world (anabhirati saññā)."

It is the nature of sense faculties, eyes, etc., to encounter various objects, good and bad; it is not possible to wish not to come across undesirable sense-objects.

Following the dictates of anger, a person is distraught and mad with fury. What is the use of retaliating wrongs of such a person?

An Omniscient Buddha looks after all these beings as if they were his own dear children. Therefore, aspiring after Omniscient Buddhahood, I should not despair because of them or be angry with them.

Should the wrong-doer be one endowed with noble attributes such as morality, one should reflect, 'I should not show anger to such a virtuous one.

Should the wrong-doer be one without any noble attributes such as morality, one should reflect, ' He is a person I should regard with great compassion.

By getting angry, my virtues and fame will diminish.

Becoming angry with him, I shall look ugly, sleep in discomfort, and so forth¹⁵ to the delight of my enemies."

This anger is a powerful enemy that brings about all harm and destroys all prosperity.

When one has forbearance, one can have no enemies.

[ 46 ] "Thinking that with forbearance I will meet with no suffering (which will befall the wrong-doer); or, by retaliating him with anger, I shall only be following in the footsteps of my foes."

Should I overcome anger through forbearance, I would be completely vanquishing also the foe who is a slave of anger.

It is not proper for me to relinquish the noble quality of forbearance because of anger.

How could I be endowed with noble qualities such as morality, etc., when anger, the antithesis of all good qualities, is arising in me? And in the absence of such noble qualities, how could I render help to beings and achieve the vowed goal of Omniscient Buddhahood.

"Only with forbearance, can one remain undistracted by external objects and have concentration of mind; and only with concentration of mind can one discern all conditioned formations (sankharas) to be impermanent and unsatisfactory and all dhammas to be non-self Nibbbāna to be unconditioned, deathless, etc., and the attributes of a Buddha to be of inconceivable, immeasurable powers.

Because of such discernment one becomes established in Vipassana Insight (anulomika khanti) through which it is realized that All these dhammas are natural phenomena devoid of self or anything pertaining to self; they arise and pass away in accordance with their individual conditions; they came from nowhere and they go nowhere; they are not permanently established as an entity anywhere; there is no (operating) agency in this group of natural phenomena"" (as there is no such thing as individuality in the first place). Realizing what they really are, one could comprehend that they are not the abode of 'I-conceit'. With such reflection Bodhisattas stand firmly and irreversibly in their destiny, bound to attain Omniscience."

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Forbearance.)

[ 47 ] 7. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Truthfulness.

The Perfection of Truthfulness should be reflected on thus:
Without truthfulness, attributes such as morality, etc., are impossible and there can be no performance of the vow of attaining Buddhahood.

When truthfulness is transgressed, all kinds of evil come together.

One who does not speak truth constantly is regarded as untrustworthy in this very life; in every future existence too, his word will not be accepted by others.

Only with truthfulness, can one develop attributes such as morality, etc.

"Only with truthfulness as a foundation, can one purify and fulfil noble qualities such as Pāramī, Cāga, Cariya. Therefore by being truthful with regard to phenomena, one can perform the functions of Pāramī Cāga, Cariya and become accomplished in the practice of Bodhisattas.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Truthfulness.)

8. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Resolution.

In the absence of firm resolution in doing good deeds such as the Pefection of Generosity, etc., on encountering their opposites such as miserliness (macchariya) immorality (dussīlya), etc., one could not maintain steadfastness in performing such good deeds; and without steadfastness, one could not practise them with skill and valour. And without skill and valour, the Perfection of Generosity, etc., which form the requisites for Omniscience could not be accomplished."

[ 48 ] "Only when resolution in doing good deeds such as the Perfection of Generosity, etc., is firm, can one maintain steadfastness on encountering their opposites. such as miserliness, immorality, etc., Only when such steadfastness is maintained can one gain skill and valour in performing such good deeds. Then only Perfection of

Generosity, etc., which form the requisites of Omniscience could be accomplished, ." In this manner, the attributes of resolution should be reflected upon.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Resolution.)

9.The detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Loving-kindness.

"Even one occupied entirely with one's personal welfare (a selfish person) could not gain prosperity in this or future life without promoting loving-kindness for the well-being of others. How much more should a Bodhisatta wishing to establish all beings in the bliss of Nibbāna develop it? Only by fostering infinite loving-kindness for them, can a Bodhisatta establish all beings in Nibbāna.

Wishing to help later all beings achieve the supra mundane bliss of Nibbāna when I become a Buddha, I should begin right now wishing them in advance mundane prosperity."""

"If I could not perform now the mere mental act of wishing for their welfare, when would I accomplish the verbal and physical deeds of helping them achieve their welfare?

These beings whom I nurture now with loving-kindness would in future become heirs and companions on the future occasion of sharing my Dhamma inheritance."""

Without these beings, there could be no requisites for my Pāramīs. Therefore they form complementary conditions for fulfilment and accomplishment of all the attributes of a Buddha; and they serve as a highly fertile field for sowing the seeds of merit, the best location for performing of meritorious deeds, the unique site to be revered.

[ 49 ] In this manner one should especially cultivate goodwill towards all beings.

The attributes of loving-kindness should also be reflected on this way: "

Compassion is the first and foremost of all fundamental practices which lead to Buddhahood. For the Bodhisatta who delights in providing welfare and happiness of all beings without discrimination (metta), the desire to remove their suffering and misfortune (karuna) becomes firmly rooted and powerful. Thus loving-kindness which forms the foundation of compassion should be developed towards all beings.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Loving-kindness.)

" " 10. Detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Equanimity.

In the absence of equanimity, abuses and wrongs done by others may cause disturbances in my mind. With a disturbed mind, there is no possibility even of doing good deeds of generosity, etc., which are the requisities for Buddhahood."""

When loving-kindness is cultivated towards beings as mere affection, unaccompanied by equanimity, purification of requisites of the Pāramīs is not possible.

Having no equanimity, one cannot channel requisites of meritorious deeds and their results towards promotion of welfare of beings.

A Bodhisatta makes no discrimination of gifts and of their recipients. It is impossible not to do so without equanimity.

When not endowed with equanimity, one cannot attend to purification of morality without taking consideration the dangers that may befall one's life and life-accessories (jivitaparikkhara).

[ 50 ] "Only one who has overcome by virtue of equanimity the dislike of good deeds and delight in sensual pleasures can acquire the power of renunciation."

All functions of Pāramī requisities can be accomplished only by examining them rightly with intelligent equanimity (Ñānupekkhā).

In the absence of equanimity, excess of energy makes engagement in meditation impossible

Only with equanimity, it is possible for one to concentrate on forbearance.

Only because of equanimity, beings can possess truthfulness,

By remaining indifferent to the vicissitudes of life, one's resolution to fulfil the Pāramīs becomes firm and unshakeable.

Only with equanimity can one disregard others' wrong; only such disregard promotes abiding in loving-kindness.

Building up the requisites of all the Pāramīs in this manner, remaining unshakeable in determination,fulfilling and-accomplishing them--all these become possible only by virtue of equanimity.

Thus should the Perfection of Equanimity be reflected on.

(This is the detailed treatment of reflecting on the Perfection of Equanimity.)

Thus reflections (Paccavekkanā Ñāna) on the disadvantages of not doing meritorious deeds such as alms-giving, etc., and on the advantages accruing from such deeds of merit form the basis of the Pāramīs.

[ 51 ] F. Fifteen kinds of Conduct (Carana) and fivefold Higher Knowledge (Abhinnas) together with their components.

Like reflections stated above, fifteen kinds of Conduct and fivefold Higher Knowledge together with their components also form the basis of the Pāramīs.

Fifteen kinds of Conduct are:
(1) Observance of precepts (Sīla samvara).
(2) Closing securely with mindfulness the six doors of sense-faculties, namely, eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind so that no plunder by bandits in the form of evil deeds could take place (Indriyesu guttadvarata).
(3) Being moderate in eating (Bhojanamattannuta).
(4) Out of the six divisions of a (24-hour) day, namely, morning, midday, evening, first watch, second watch and last watch of the night, sleeping only in the second watch, and engaging in meditation only in the two postures of sitting and walking during the remaining five periods (Jagariyanuyoga).
(5-11) The seven virtues of the good: faith, mindfulness, moral shame of doing evil, moral dread of doing evil, learning, energy and wisdom.
(12-15) The Four Jhānas (the first, the second, the third and the fourth).
[ 52 ] Of these fifteen Caranas, the components of the first four are the thirteen ascetic practices (dhutanga)¹⁶, and such qualities as having few wants, being easily contented, and etc.

Of the seven virtues of the good dhamma,

(a) the components of faith are

(i) recollection of the Buddha (Buddhanussati);
(ii) recollection of the Dhamma (Dhammanussati);
(iii) recollection of the Saṃgha (Saṃghanussati);
(iv) recollection of one's morality (Sīlanussati);
(v) recollection of generosity (Cāganussati);
(vi) recollection of one's faith, morality, learning, sacrifice and wisdom, with Devas as witness (Devatānussatti);
(vii) recollection of attributes of Nibbāna (Upasamānussatti);
(viii)non-assosiation with people of baren, dry faith (Lukhapuggala parivajjana);
(ix)association with amiable men of faith (Siniddha-puggala);
(x) reflection on dhammas which inspire devotional faith (Pasadaniya dhamma pacavekkhanā); and
(xi) inclination to generate faith in all posture (Tadadhimuttatā);

[ 53 ] (b) the components of mindfulness are:

(i) mindfulness and clear comprehension in the seven movements such as moving forward, moving backward, etc.;
(ii) non-association with careless and negligent people;
(iii) association with mindful people;
(iv) inclined to generate mindfulness in all posture;

(c-d) the components of moral shame and moral dread of doing evil are:

(i) reflection on the danger of demeritoriousness;
(ii) reflection on the danger of the realms of misery;
(iii) reflection on the supporting character of meritoriousness;
(iv) non-association with people devoid of moral shame and moral dread of doing evil;
(v) association with people endowed with moral shame and moral dread of doing evil; and
(vi) inclination for developing moral shame and moral dread of doing evil.

(e) The components of learning are:

(i) previous efforts made for learning;
(ii) being a constant enquirer;
(iii) association with and practice of good Dhamma;
(iv) pursuit of blameless knowledge;
(v) maturity of faculties such as faith, etc.;
(vi) keeping away from defilements;
(vii) non-association with the ignorant;
(viii) association with the learned; and
(ix) inclination for extending knowledge in all postures.

(f) the components of energy are:

(i) reflection on the danger of the realms of misery;
(ii) reflection on the benefit of strenuous effort;
(iii) reflection on the desirability of following the path trod by the virtuous such as the Buddha, etc.;
[ 54 ] (iv) honouring the alms-food by devoting oneself to practice of Dhamma;
(v) reflection on the noble heritage of the good dhamma;
(vi) reflection on the supremacy of the teacher who is a Buddha;
(vii) reflection on one's eminent lineage as a descendent of a Buddha;
(viii) reflection on the nobility of companions in the Dhamma;
(ix) non-association with the indolent;
(x) association with the industrious; and
(xi) inclination for developing energy¹⁷ in all posture.

(g) the components of wisdom are:

(i) (making) repeated enquiries about the aggregates (khandhas), the bases (ayatanas), the elements (dhātus) etc., of one' s body;
(ii) purity of objects both inside and outside the body;
(iii)keeping in perfect balance of the two pairs of faith and wisdom on the one hand and energy and concentration on the other in accordance with the saying,
"excess of faith leads to over enthusiasm;
excess of wisdom leads to craftiness;
excess of energy leads to restlessness;
excess of concentration leads to ennui (mental weariness);
but there is never an excess of mindfulness;"
(iv) non-association with the foolish;
(v) association with the wise;
(vi) reflection on the diversity of profound knowledge related to subtle subjects such as the aggregates etc.; and
(vii) inclination for developing knowledge (paññā) in all postures.

[ 55 ] (h) The components of the four Jhānas are:

(i) the first four carana dharnmas beginning with observance of precepts¹⁸;
(ii) the beginning portion of Samatha meditation, and
(iii) the fivefold mastery¹⁹ (vasībhava).

Through these Caranas, and Abhinnas, it is possible to achieve purity in application (payoga suddhi) and purity of disposition (asaya suddhi). Through purity in application one can make the gift of harmlessness (abhaya dāna) to beings and through purity of disposition one can make the gift of material objects (amiss dāna); and through the purity of both, the gift of Dhamma (Dhamma dāna) becomes possible.

In this way it may be understood how the Cararias and-Abhiññas form the requisites of the Pāramīs.

7. What are the factors that defile the Pāramis?

To the question, "what are the factors that defile the Pāramīs?" the answer in general is: regarding the Pāramīs as 'I', "mine", "myself" through craving, conceit and wrong view is the cause of defilement of the Pāramīs.

The precise answer, however, (in each particular case) is (as follows):
(i) Thinking to discriminate between gifts and between their recipients causes defilement of the Perfection of Generosity. (The Bodhisatta who is fulfilling the Perfection of Generosity should give away without discrimination whatever gifts he has in hand to whoever has come to seek. He should not think about the quality of [ 56 ] the gift, "This is too bad to offer; this is too good to donate;" or should he think about the recipient, "This man is an immoral person; I cannot give it to him." Such discriminating thoughts make the Perfection of Generosity impure.)
(ii) Thinking to discriminate between beings and between occasions causes defilement of the Perfection of Morality. (The Perfection of Morality should be fulfilled regardless of beings and occasion, thinking: 'I shall refrain from killing only such and such creature; I shall, not refrain from killing others. I shall observe precepts only on such and such an occasion, not on other occasions." Thinking discriminatingly thus will make the Perfection of Morality impure.)
(iii) Thinking that the two kinds of sensuality²⁰ and three realms of existence to be pleasant, and thinking that the cessation of sensuality and existence to be unpleasant are the causes of defilement of the Perfection of Renunciation.
(iv) Wrong thought of "I", "mine", is the cause of the defilement of the Perfection of Wisdom.
(v) Sluggish thoughts which encourage sloth and torpor and restlessness are the cause of defilements of the Perfection of Energy.
(vi) Thoughts discriminating between oneself and others (as my men and their men) are the cause of defilement of the Perfection of Forbearance.
(vii) Avowing to have seen, heard, touched and known what was not seen, heard, touched and known; and avowing not to have seen, heard, touched and known what was seen, heard, touched and known are the cause of defilement of the' Perfection of Truthfulness.
[ 57 ] (viii) Thinking that the requisites of Enlightement, Pāramī, Cāga, Cariya are disadvantageous and that their opposites are advantageous form the cause of defilement of the Perfection of Resolution.
(ix) Thinking as to who is one's benefactor and who is not (who is friendly or who is not) is the cause of defilement of the Perfection of Loving-kindness.
(x) Discriminating between desirable sense objects from undesirable ones that are encountered is the cause of defilement of the Perfection of Equanimity.

8. What are the factors that purify the Pāramīs?

To the question "What are the factors that purify the Pāramīs?" the answer is: not being destroyed or spoilt by craving, conceit and wrong view, and (as has been stated above) not having thoughts of discrimination between gifts and between their recipients form the cause of purification of the Pāramis.

True, the Pāramīs are pure only when (they are) not tainted by defilements such as craving, conceit, wrong view, etc., and are devoid of discriminating thoughts of the quality of gifts and recipients.

9.What are the factors that oppose the Pāramis?

To the question 'What are the factors that oppose the Parmīs? the answer is: when considered in general all the defiling factors and all the remeritorious factors are the opposites of the Pāramīs.

When considered in detail, craving for the object to be offered, and stinginess are the opposite of Paññā Pāramī; wrong doings (physical, verbal and mental) are the opposite of the Sīla Pāramī. Taking delight in sense objects, sense pleasures and existence is the opposite of Nekkhamma Pāramī. Extreme delusion is the opposite of Paññā Pāramī. The eight occasions of indolence (kusīta vatthu) enumerated above are the opposites of Viriya Pāramī. Intoierance, through greed or dislike, of desirable and undesirable objects is the [ 58 ] opposite of Khanti Pāramī. Not bringing out the real nature (as it truly exists) is the opposite of Sacca Pāramī Inability to overcome the dhammas which are opposed to the Perfections (not practising them successfully) is the opposite of Adhiṭṭhāna Pāramī. The nine forms of developing hatred are the opposite of Mettā Pāramī. Not viewing with the feeling of neutrality when encountering-desirable or undesirable objects is opposite of Upekkhā Pāramī.

Further details:

(i) Craving for the objects to be given away aversion (lobha) to the recipients (dosa) and getting bewildered over generosity and its beneficial results (moha) are opposed to the Perfection of Generosity because only in the absence of such craving, aversion and bewilderment is an act of generosity accomplished.

(ii) The ten wrongdoings are opposed to the Perfection of Morality because observance of precepts is accomplished only when one is free from evils of wrong thought, word and deed.

(iii) Renunciation is the noble act of abstinence from sense pleasures, ill treatment of others and self-mortification; therefore indulgence in sense pleasures (lobha), ill-treatment of others (dosa) and self-mortification (moha) are opposed to the Perfection of Renunciation.

(iv) Craving, aversion and bewilderment make beings blind whereas wisdom restores the sight of beings blinded by them. Therefore these three unwholesome factors which cause blindness in beings are opposed to the Perfection of Wisdom.

(v) Through craving one flinches from doing meritorious deeds; through aversion one cannot be established in good deeds; and through bewilderment one cannot strive in a right way. It is only by means of energy one performs meritorious deeds without flinching, becomes established in them and proceeds in a right manner. Therefore these three unwholsome factors are opposed to the Perfection of Energy.

[ 59 ] (vi) Only with forbearance can one resist (inclination towards) craving for desirable objects or (towards) ill-will for undesirable objects and can perceive the non-personality and voidness of natural phenomena: thus craving aversion, and bewilderment which cannot so perceive the empty nature of phenomena are opposed to the Perfection of Forbearance.

(vii) Without truthfulness one is likely to be biased by craving because of services rendered to him by others, or by aversion because of harm done by them; hence truth cannot prevail under such circumstances. Only with truthfulness can one in the face of favouritism or antagonism be free from bias caused by craving, or by aversion ill-will or bewilderment that deter prevalence of truth. Thus these three unwholesome factors are opposed to the Perfection of Truthfulness.

(viii) With resolution can one overcome the pleasant and unpleasant vicissitudes of life and remain unshakeable in fulfilling the Pāramīs; therefore craving aversion and bewilderment which cannot vanquish the vicissitudes of life are apposed to the Perfection of Resolution.

(ix) Development of loving-kindness can ward off the obstacles (in the path of spiritual progress)²¹; therefore these three unwholsome factors, constituents of the obstacles, are opposed to the Perfection of Loving-kindness.

(x) Without equanimity, craving for desirable objects and aversion to undersirable objects cannot be stopped and destroyed; nor can one view them with a balanced mind. Only when endowed with equanimity can one do so. Therefore these three unwholesome factors are opposed to the Perfection of Equanimity.

[ 60 ] 10. What is the detailed method of practising the Pāramīs?

To the question, "How are the Pāramis fulfilled?, how do the Bodhisattas practise the Pāramīs?" the answer is:

With regard to the Dāna Pāramī.

A Bodhisatta fulfils the Perfection of Generosity by serving the interest of beings in several ways - attending to their welfare, giving up own life and limb, warding off the danger that would befall them, instructing them in the Dhamma etc.

The answer in detail: Generosity is of three kinds: (a) gift of material objects (āmisa dāna), (b) gift of harmlessness (abhaya dāna) and (c) gift of Dhamma (Dhamma dāna).

Gift of material objects (āmisa dāna): Of these three kinds, gift of material objects to be given by the Bodhisatta can be twofold (i) gift of internal objects and (ii) gift of external objects.

External objects for offering (according to Suttanta method of enumeration) consist of ten kinds: food, drink, garment, vehicle, flowers, unguent, bedding, dwelling place and lighting material. These offerings become manifold when each of them is divided into various things such as hard food, soft food, etc., in the case of food.

Likewise, (according to the Abhidhammā method of enumeration) offerings are of six kinds when analysed by way of six sense objects, e.g. gift of visible things, gift of sounds, etc., These sense objects become manifold, for example, the gift of visible things alone may be one of blue, one of yellow, etc.

Likewise, there are inanimate things such as rubies, gold, silver, pearls, coral, etc;or paddy fields, other arable plots of land, parks, gardens, etc;and there are also animate ones such as female slaves, male slaves, cattle, etc., Thus things to be given are plenty.

[ 61 ] How a gift of external objects is made.

When a Bodhisatta makes a gift of external objects, he offers whatever is necessary to the needy. When he knows by himself that someone is in need of something he gives it away even unasked, more so when asked. When giving gifts, he does so freely, with without any conditions.

When there are sufficient objects to offer, he gives them to each recipient sufficiently. But when there are not enough to give, he divides (into equal portions) what could be divided and gives.

There is a special point to note. In making gifts, he does not give things that would cause harm to others such as arms, poisons and intoxicants; nor does he make gifts of playthings which are not beneficial but would cause negligence and playfulness.

To a sick recipient, he does not offer unsuitable food or drink; he offers him only what is suitable and in proper quantity and measure.

Likewise, when asked, he gives to householders what is good for householders and to bhikkhus what is appropriate to them. (He does not give householders things acceptable to bhikkhus or vice versa.) And he makes his offerings without causing trouble to those close to him such as his mother, father, kinsmen and relatives, friends and colleagues, children, wife, slaves, and workers.

Having promised an excellent gift, he does not give something inferior. He does not give, expecting gain, honour, fame or reward; nor does he give anticipating benefits such as good existence, wealth or prosperity, other than Omniscience. He makes his offerings with the one and only wish, Omniscience.

He does not make his offerings, detesting the recipients or the gift materials. Even to the recipients who without restraining themselves abuse and revile him, he does not give in an irreverential manner (as if he is discarding refuse) and with annoyance; he always gives with reverence, a serene mind and full compassion. His generosity is totally free of the belief that noisy acclamation is auspicious, but it is associated with the staunch faith in the law of kamma and its fruits.

[ 62 ] He makes his offerings without subjecting the recipients to the trouble of showing respect and humbleness to him; without any wish to deceive or to cause disunity, he gives only with a mind of great purity. He does not use harsh, abusive words, nor does he give with a pout and sullenness; he gives only with sweet words of endearment, a smile on his face and a serene calm disposition.

Whenever attachment to or craving for a particular object appears excessively in him because of its superior quality, or because of long personal use, or because it is the nature of greed to crave, hanker after objects of value and excellence, the Bodhisatta is aware of this greed, quickly dispels it, and seeks a recipient until he finds one and gives him the same object.

Suppose he is about to partake of a meal which is just enough for one and someone presents himself and asks for it; under such circumstances, a Bodhisatta does not think twice to forego his meal and offer it right away to the recipient respectfully just as the Bodhisatta Akitti²² the Wise had done.

When asked for his own chidren, wife, slaves, etc., he first explains to them his proposed act of giving; only when they become satisfied and happy does he give them away, who are happy to assist him in his fulfilment of Pāramis. But he does not make such an offering if he knows that those who ask for them are non-humans such as ogres and demons', etc.

Likewise he will not give up his kingdom to those who will bring harm or suffering to the people and who will work against their interest, but only to those who would protect them in a righteous manner.

This is how the practice of giving external objects is pursued.

[ 63 ] How a gift of internal objects is made.

A Bodhisatta makes his offering of internal objects in two ways:
(i) Just as a person, for the sake of food and clothing, gives himself up to another in servitude and serves as a slave, even so the Bodhisatta gives away his whole body placing himself at the service of others, not desiring at all the pleasures of senses or a good existence, but wishing only the supreme welfare and happiness of beings and to bring to the highest stage his fulfilment of the Perfection of Generosity. (The gift of his whole body).
(ii) He gives.away without hesitation or wavering his limbs and organs such as the hands, the feet, the eyes etc., to anybody who is in need of them. As in the case of external objects he has no attachment to or craving for these various limbs and organs of his; nor has he one iota of reluctance in so doing. (The gift of his limbs and organs.)

Two objectives of giving.

In sacrificing his limbs and organs or the whole body, the Bodhisatta has two objectives: (i) to fulfil the wish of the recipient and let him enjoy whatever he needs, and (ii) to gain mastery over the performance of meritorious deeds of perfections by giving away generously without the slightest attachment to the objects offered. The Bodhisatta gives away internal objects of his whole body or any parts thereof big or small, just as he dispenses offerings of external possessions in charity, believing "I will certainly attain Omniscience through such generosity."

In these acts of offering, he gives only what would be truly beneficial to the recipient. In particular he does not give knowing his own body or its parts to Mara or to his company of deities who wish to cause injury to him, thinking,"Lest this should prove fruitless to them." Likewise, he does not give his body or its parts to those possessed by Mara or his associates or to the insane. But to all others who ask for them, he makes an immediate offer because of the rarity of such a request or opportunity to make such a gift.

[ 64 ] (B) The gift of harmlessness (Abhaya dāna)

The Bodhisatta makes the gift of harmlessness by giving protection to beings and saving them even at the sacrifice of his own life when they are subjected to harm and danger by kings, thieves, fire, water, enemies, wild beasts such as lions, tigers, and nāgas, ogres, demons, etc.

(c) The gift of the Dhamma (Dhamma dāna).

The gift of the Dhamma means unequivocal teaching of truth with a pure mind completely free from defilements of greed, hate, etc.

To Future Disciples of a Buddha who have a strong wholesome desire to realize Sāvaka Bodhi, the Bodhisatta gives discourses on taking refuge in the Triple Gem, morality, guarding the doors of sense faculties, moderation in eating, practice of wakefulness, the seven good dhammas, practising concentration and insight meditation, the seven kinds of purification, the Knowledge of the four Paths (Magga Ñāna), three kinds of knowledge (Vijjā), the six Higher Knowledges (Abhiññās), the four Analytical Knowledge (Patisambhidā Ñāna) and the Enlightenment of a Disciple (Sāvaka Bodhi).

He gives the gift of the Dhamma by elaborating on the attributes of the above mentioned topics, establishing in the Triple Refuge, morality, etc., those who have not yet been so established, and helping those who have already been established purify their practices.

Likewise, to beings who aspire to become Pacceka Buddhas and Sammāsambuddhas, the Bodhisatta gives the gift of the Dhamma by explaining them clearly the characteristics functions, etc., of the ten Pāramīs; by elaborating upon the glory of Bodhisattas throughout the three stages of their existence --- at the moment of fulfilment of Pāramis, of becoming a Buddha and of fulfilment of the duties of a Buddha; by establishing them in the practices for attainment of Pacceka Bodhi or Samrnāsambodhi; and by purifying the practices of those who are already established in them.

[ 65 ] Suttanta classification of Dāha into ten kinds.

When a Bodhisatta gives material gifts, he makes an offering of alms-food with the wish: "Through this material gift, may I help beings achieve long life, beauty, happiness, strength, intelligence and attain the supreme fruit of Arahantship."

Similarly, he makes an offering of drink to assuage the thirst for sensual defilements of beings.

He makes an offering of garments to gain golden complexion and adornment of moral shame and moral dread; of vehicles to become accomplished in various psychic powers and gain the bliss of Nibbāna; of perfumes to produce the sweet fragrance of incomparable morality; of flowers and unguents to be endowed with splendour of Buddha qualities; of seats to win the seat of Enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree; of beds to acquire the 'sleep of a Buddha which is entering into the Fourth Jhāna according to the saying "Lying on the left is the sleep of the sensuous, lying on the right that of a lion, lying with upturned face .that of a peta, entering into the Fourth Jhāna is the sleep of a Buddha"; of dwelling places such as rest houses etc., to become a refuge of beings; and of lamps to acquire the five-eyes²³.

[ 66 ] Various kinds of dānas with their respective objects.

He makes a gift of colour (rūpa dāna) to acquire the aura which constantly illumines, an area of eighty cubics around the Buddha's body even in the darkness of a thick forest, at midnight, on a new moon day with rain clouds covering the sky; of sound (sadda dāna) to acquire a voice like that of the Brahma; of tastes to become a person endearing to all beings; of tangibles to acquire the fruit of gentleness of a Buddha (Buddha Sukhumālatā); of medicines to attain the fruit of the ageless, and deathless Nibbāna; of freedom to slaves in order to gain emancipation from slavery of defilements; of blameless amusement so as to delight in the true Dhamma; of his own children in order to make all beings his children of Ariyan birth (by permitting them into the Order); of his wives such as Queen Maddi²⁴ in order to become lord of the whole world; of ten kinds of treasures (such as gold, gems, pearls, coral etc.) in order to achieve the major characteristics of physical beauty of a Great Being; of various adornments in order to achieve the eighty minor characteristic marks of physical beauty; of his worldy wealth in order to win the treasury of the True Dhamma; of his kingdom in order to become the King of the Dhamma; of pleasance or garden, ponds and groves in order to achieve the super-human transcendental dhamma of Jhānas, liberation, concentration, Path and Fruition; of his feet to who ever wants them to enable himself approach the tree of Enlightenment with feet marked with auspicious wheels; of his hands as he wishes to extend the helping hand of the true Dhamma to get beings across the four wild floods²⁵; of ears, nose, etc., to be endowed with faculties of faiths etc., of eyes to be endowed with the All-seeing Eye (Samanta Cakkhu of a Buddha), that is, Omniscience; of the gift of flesh and blood with the wishful thought "May my body bring welfare and happiness to all-beings, at all times, even when I am seeing, hearing, recollecting or helping [ 67 ] myself. May it be the means for substaining all the world"; of the gift of the head, the top-most part of the body, in order to become a supreme one in all the world.

In making such gifts, the Bodhisatta does so not by seeking wrong means; nor by ill-treating others; nor through fear or shame; nor by causing vexation to the recipient; nor does he give inferior objects when he has superior ones to offer; nor does he extoll himself while disparaging others; nor does he wish any fruit other than Buddhahood in making his gifts; nor does he give with loathing, disgust, detestation, contempt or despise as a matter of fact, he gives after careful preparation of materials, with his own hands, at the proper time, with due reverence to the recipient, without discrimination, filled with joy at all three moments (that is, before while and after giving.)

Therefore there is no feeling of remorse after making the gift; he does not become haughty or disdainful towards recipients but speaks endearingly to them. Understanding the speech of the recipient, he is accessible to them. When he makes an offering, he does so together with additional materials along with it.

For example, when he wishes to offer alms-food, he thinks 'I will make this offer of alms-food along with suitable accompaniments and makes an offer of drinks, robes etc., as well. And when he wishes to offer robes, he thinks," I will make this offer of robes along with suitable accompaniments," and makes an offer of food, etc., as well. The same method is followed with regard to gifts of vehicles, etc.

Whenever he wishes to make a gift of visible forms (rūpa dāna), he makes a gift of sound (sadda dāna), etc., as accessories to accompany it. The same method is followed with regard to gift of sound, etc.

[ 68 ] In making ten kinds of offering of food, drink etc., following the Suttanta way of giving, the materials offered are tangible and easily intelligible. In the Abhidhammā way of making gifts, which are objects of senses such as form, sound, it is not perceptible also what constitutes a rupa dāna, or how one should be mentally disposed to effect a gift of rupa. How such gifts should be made is explained below.

Abhidhammā classification of Dāna into six kinds.

Rupa dāna.

According to six kinds of offering following the Abhidhammā classifications, the gift of colour (rūpa dāna) should be understood thus; Having acquired a gift material such as flowers, garments or mineral elements of blue, yellow, red, white colour etc., one regards them only as colour and thinking," I shall make a gift of colour; this is my gift of colour", offers the flower, the garment which has the colour intended as a gift. This kind of offering is known as gift of colour (rupa dāna).

It is not possible for a person who wants to make a gift of a particular colour by saperating it out from the material of that colour; he has to make an offer of a flower, garment or mineral element which has the colour of his choice, thinking, "I shall make a gift of colour, this is my gift of colour." This is how an offer of colour (rupa dāna) is made.

Sadda dāna.

The gift of sound (sadda dāna) should be understood by way of sound of drums, etc., When making such a gift, it is not possible to give sound the way one does of lotus bulbs and roots after pulling them out or a cluster of blue lotuses by placing it in the hands of the recipient. One makes a gift of sound by giving sound-producing objects such as drums or bells. Thinking, "I will make a gift of sound," he pays homage to the Triple Gem by playing one of these musical instruments himself or causing others to do so; or thinking, "This is my gift of sound," he erects on the pagoda platforms, bells or bronze drums himself or causes others to do so; or by giving [ 69 ] voice stimulant such as honey, molasses etc., to Dhamma preachers; by announcing and inviting people to listen to the Dhamma, or by giving a talk on the Dhamma, by discussing Dhamma with those who have approached him; or by expressing appreciation for the good deeds of feeding monks or building monasteries or causing others to do so. Such a gift is known as the gift of sound (sadda dāna).

Gandha dāna.

Likewise, the gift of scent (Gandha dāna) is made when after acquiring some delightfully fragrant objects in the form of roots, branches or powder, considering it only as scent (not as an object) and thinking, "I shall make a gift of scent; this is my gift of scent", he offers it to the Triple Gem;or he relinquishes short pieces of fragrant wood such as aloe, sandal, etc., with the intention of making a gift. Such a gift is known as the gift of scent (Gandha dāna).

Rasa dāna.

Likewise, the gift of taste (rasa dāna) is made when, after getting a delightfully flavoured root, bulb, globule, fruit, etc., considering it (not as a material object but) only as taste, and thinking, "I shall make a gift of taste; this is my gift of taste," he offers it to a recipient; or he makes an offering of tasteful food such as rice, corn, bean, milk, etc., Such a gift is known as the gift of taste (rasa dāna).

Phoṭṭhabba dāna.

The gift of tangibility (phoṭṭhabba dāna) should be understood by way of couches, cots, beds, chairs, etc., and by way of spreads, coverlets, blankets, etc., Having acquired some soft, delightful tangible objects such as couches, cots, chairs, spreads, coverlets, blankets, etc., considering them (not as material objects but) only as tangible quality, and thinking, 'I shall make a gift of tangibility; this is my gift of tangibility,' he makes a gift of some such tangible objects; such a gift is called the gift of tangibility (phoṭṭhabba dāna).

[ 70 ] Dhamma dāna.

The gift of Dhamma (dhamma dāna) means the gift of dhammā rammana²⁶ (one of the six sense objects). In accordance with the dictum, "oja, pāna, jīvita are to be taken as dhamma dāna", dhamma dāna should be understood by way of nutriment, drink and life.

To explain further: Having acquired some such material as butter, ghee, etc., rich in nutrient (oja), considering it only as a nutrient, actually a dhammāraman, and thinking "I shall make a gift of dhammārammana; this is my gift of dhammārammana," he makes a gift of butter, ghee, etc; or a gift of eight kinds of drink (pān)²⁷ made from fruits and roots; or, thinking, "this is a gift of life", he makes gifts of materials conducive to life-prolongation such as offering of food by tickets²⁸, etc., or gets physicians to attend to the sick and afflicted; or causes fishing nets, bird-cages, traps to be destroyed; or liberates those who have been imprisoned, or causes a proclamation to be made by beating of gongs: "Slaughter of animals is forbidden; no fish or meat is to be sold"; undertakes himself or cause others to do so for the protection of lives of beings. Such a gift is known as the gift of dhamma (dhamma dāna).

[ 71 ] The Bodhisatta dedicates all the said accomplishments in generosity to the happiness and welfare of the whole world of beings till they attain Nibbāna; he dedicates them as supporting requisites to his attainment of Supreme Enlighterrment, to his inexhaustible will (chanda), energy (viriya), concentration (samādhi), wisdom (panna) and emancipation (vimutti) through Arahatta phala.

In fulfilling the Perfection of Generosity the Bodhisatta develops the perception of impermanence with regard to his life and with regard to his possessions. He considers these possessions as belonging to others as well. He constantly and continuously develops great compassion towards beings. In developing such compassion, he is gathering essence of merit worth extracting from his wealth. Just like a person whose house is blazing removes himself and all his most valuable belongings to a safe place, so does the Bodhisatta save himself and his valuable assets from the great mansion of three abodes (realms of humans, Devas and Brahmas) which are raging with eleven fires²⁹ of rāga, etc., by giving them away generously without leaving anything behind. He does so without concern, without discrimination as to what is to be given away or what is to be kept for personal use.

(This is the method of fulfilling the Perfection of Generosity.)

2. How Sīla Pāramī is fulfilled.

Wishing to support others with material aids one should in the first instance strive to become possessed of wealth and property. Likewise wishing to adorn beings with the ornaments of morality the Bodhisatta, to begin with, has to purify his own morality.

[ 72 ] Herein, morality is purified in four modes:

(i) by purifying one's inclination (ajjhāsaya visuddhi);
(ii) by undertaking oneself the observance of precepts taken from others (samādana);
(iii) by non-transgression (avitikkamana); and
(iv) by making amends in case of transgression (paṭipākatika karana).

(i) A person through purity of his own inclination is naturally disgusted with evil; he may become very pure in morality by arousing his inward sense of moral shame (hiri).

(ii) Likewise, a person who has taken precepts from others reflects, "I am undertaking the observance of precepts taken from such and such a teacher," and having respect for other beings may become very pure in morality by arousing his sense of moral dread of evil (ottappa).

(iii) When endowed with both moral shame and moral dread to do evil there can be no transgression. Through nontransgression one may become pure in morality and be well established in it.

(iv) If due to forgetfulness, one sometimes breaks a precept or two, then through one's sense of moral shame and moral dread, one quickly makes amends by proper means of reinstating such as confession or observance of parivasa³⁰ penance and carrying out manatta³¹ penance to become pure again in morality. (On transgression, a bhikkhu has to observe parivāsa penance and carry out manatta penance; a layman or a sāmanera has to renew the undertaking for observance of precepts to gain reinstatement.)

[ 73 ] Precept of Abstention (Varitta Sīla) and Precept of Performance (Cāritta Sīla).

The morality which has been purified by means of the aforesaid four modes is of two kinds, namely, Varitta Sīla and Cāritta Sīla. Of these two kinds,

(i) Not doing what is prohibited by the Buddha and other noble persons who say, 'This is wrong; this should not be done; it should be abstained from,' Thus abstaining from ten acts of evil such as killing, etc., is called Varitta Sīla.
(ii) Showing respect to honourable persons such as one's teachers, parents or good friends and performing blameless, useful services for them is called Cāritta Sīla.

How the Bodhisatta observes Varitta Sīla.

(a) The Bodhisatta has such great compassion for all beings that he barbours no resentment towards any one even in a dream; thus he abstains from killing.

(b) As he is always dedicated to assisting others, he would handle the belonging of others with an inclination to misappropriate it no more than he would take hold of a poisonous snake.

(c) In his existences of a monk or a recluse, he keeps away from sexual practice. Not only does he avoid coital relations with a woman, he refrains from the seven minor acts bonds of sexuality (methuna samyoga) (mentioned in the Anguttara Nikāya)³² which are

(i) taking delight in being caressed, massaged and rubbed by a woman;
(ii) taking delight in jokes and laughter with a woman;
(iii) taking delight in staring and gazing at a woman eye to eye;
(iv) taking delight in hearing a woman laughing, singing, crying from the other side of a wall;
(v) taking delight in recalling the past pleasures one had enjoyed in the company of a woman;
[ 74 ](vi) taking delight in watching someone enjoying sense pleasures and in longing for such pleasures; and
(vii) leading a holy life with a longing for rebirth in a divine abode.

Since he avoids even such minor bonds of sexuality, to commit adultery is totally impossible for him; he has already abstained from such sexual misconduct from very early times.

In those existences of his as a householder, the Bodhisatta does not entertain even an evil thought of passion for the wives of others.

(d,e,f,g) When he speaks, he avoids the four wrong speeches and states only what is true, what is conducive to harmony between friends, what is endearing, and he makes only timely talks on the Dhamma in a measured manner.

(h,i,j) His mind is always devoid of covetousness and ill-will; always holding unperverted views, he is endowed with the knowledge that he is the owner of his deeds (kammassakata ñana)³³. He has faith in and good will towards recluses, who are practising rightly.

Because he avoids the unwholesome course of action (kamma) leading to the four planes of misery, and because he is established in the wholesome course of action leading to the Deva world and Nibbāna, through the purity of his inclinations, and through the purity of his physical and verbal actions, all the Bodhisatta's wishes for the welfare and happiness of beings are rapidly fulfilled; he also achieves the fulfilment of his Pāramīs.

[ 75 ] Advantages of abstention from wrong deeds.

By abstaining from the wrong deed of killing (pānātipāta) the Bodhisatta gives the gift of harmlessness to all beings; he becomes accomplished in the development of loving-kindness without difficulty and enjoys the eleven advantages³⁴ of developing lovingkindness. Together with the advantages of enjoying robust health, longevity and great happiness, he possesses the distinguished characteristics of a Great Being such as long, tapering fingers and toes; and he is able to eradicate the natural tendencies towards hatred (dosa vāsanā).

By abstaining from the wrong deed of taking what is not given (adinnadana) the Bodhisatta acquires wealth and possessions which are immune from molestation by the five enemies; he is not susceptible to suspicion by others; he is dear, amiable and trustworthy; not attached to wealth and property; with an inclination to relinquishing, he is able to eradicate the natural tendencies towards greed (lobha vasana).

By abstaining from unchaste practices (abrahmacariya) the Bodhisatta remains modest, calm in mind and body, dear, agreeable to all beings and unloathed by them; he enjoys good reputation; he has neither attachment to women nor strong desire for them; with earnest inclination to renunciation, he is able to eradicate the natural tendencies towards greed (lobha vasana).

By abstaining from false speech (musavada) the Bodhisatta is highly esteemed, trusted and relied upon by beings; his words are well accepted and have much influence on many; he is dear and agreeable to Devas; he has sweet oral fragrance; he is well guarded in his speech and action; he possesses the distinguished characteristics of a Great Being such as a single hair only in each of the pores of his body, etc.; he is able to eradicate the natural tendencies towards defilements (kilesa vāsana).

[ 76 ] By abstaining from slander (pisuna vācā) the Bodhisatta possesses a physical body which is indestructible and a following that cannot be divided by the wiles of others; he has unbreakable faith in the true Dhamma; he is a firm friend, endearing to all beings, enjoying the benefits of scanty defilements (kilesa).

By abstaining from abusive language (pharusa vāca) the Bodhisatta becomes dear to beings; with pleasant, amiable disposition, sweet in speech, he is held in high esteem by all. He becomes endowed with a voice of eight qualities³⁵.

By abstaining from frivolous talks (samphappalapa vāca) the Bodhisatta is dear and agreeable to all beings, esteemed and revered by them; speaking as a rule in a measured manner, his words are well accepted and have much influence on them, he wields great power and has the skill to give instant answers to questions asked by others; when he becomes a Buddha, he becomes capable of answering all the questions put forward by beings in numerous languages; he answers by giving a single reply in Magadhi, the language of noble persons (Ariyavaca). (The single reply given in Magadhi is well understood by the audience of different races numbering one hundred and one, each speaking its own tongue.)

By abstaining from covetousness (abhijjhā), the Bodhisatta gains whatever he wishes without difficulty; he obtains excellent riches to his liking; he is honoured and revered by wealthy kings, brahmins and householders; he is never vanquished by his adversaries, has no defects in his faculties of eye, ear, nose, etc., and becomes a person without a peer.

[ 77 ] By abstaining from ill-will (vyāpāda), the Bodhisatta becomes a pleasant person, lovely to behold and is admired by all; he inspires them easily with faith in him; he is inoffensive by nature, abides only in loving-kindness and is endowed with great power.

By rejecting wrong views and developing only right views the Bodhisatta gains good companions; he does not commit evil even if he is threatened with beheading; holding the view that he is the owner of his deeds (kamma), he does not believe in superstitious omens³⁶; he has firm confidence in the True Dhamma, and steadfast faith in the Omniscience of the Enlightened Ones; (just as a royal swan takes no delight in a dung heap) so does he take no delight in various creeds other than the right view (Sammā diṭṭhi); he is skilled in fully comprehending of the three characteristics of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and unsubstantiality; in the final existence when he becomes a Buddha, he gains the Unobstructed Knowledge, Anāvarana Ñāna, ( which knows all there is to know without any hindrance); before gaining Buddhahood he becomes the chief and foremost of beings in every existence he happens to be born in and attains the highest fortunes.

Morality is 'the foundation of all achievements; it is the origin, source of all the attributes of a Buddha, it is the beginning of all the Perfections. Reflecting thus and highly adoring morality, the Bodhisatta develops power of mindfulness and comprehension in four matters, namely, control of verbal and physical actions, restraint of faculties, purity of livelihood, and use of the four requisites; he fulfils the observance of morality with due respect and care, considering gain and honour as a foe in the guise of a friend.

(This is how Vritta Sīla is observed.)

[ 78 ] How Bodhisattas observe Cāritta Sīla.

The Bodhisatta always welcomes good friends, greeting them with a gesture of respect and courtesy by extending his clasped hands towards them and waits upon them; he attends personally on the sick and renders needful services to them. He expresses appreciation after hearing a Dhamma discourse; he speaks in praise of the virtues of the virtuous; he bears with patience the wrongs of others and recollects repeatedly only their services rendered to him; he rejoices in the meritorious acts of others and dedicates his own good deeds to Supreme Enlightenment; he ever abides without neglecting the practice of wholesome Dhamma; if he happens to commit a wrong doing, he sees it as such (without attempting to hide it) and confesses it to his Dhamma companions. He develops more and more the practice of Dhamma, going up higher and higher in the stages of attainment.

Likewise, he is skilful and diligent in rendering services to beings in such matters that are agreeable to him and would benefit them; when they are afflicted with disease, etc., he tries to give relief to them as much as possible. When misfortune (vyasana) befalls them concerning relatives, wealth, health, morality and belief, he gives them solace by dispelling their sorrow; he reproves righteously those who need to be reproved, only to take them out of evil and establish them in good; to those who deserve his support, he gives them a helping hand righteously.

On hearing the supreme practices of the past Bodhisattas by means of which they gain maturity of Pāramī, Cāga, Cariya, and which are most difficult to perform, inconceivably powerful, and which definitely contribute to the happiness and welfare of beings, the Bodhisatta is not frightened or discouraged at all.

He reflects, "All the past great Bodhisattas just like me were only, human beings; and yet by dint of constant training in morality, concentration and wisdom they reach Supreme Enlightenment. Like those great Bodhisattas of yore, I too will undergo the complete training in morality, concentration and wisdom. In this way, after completing the same three trainings, I will ultimately attain the same goal of Omniscience."

[ 79 ] Thus, with unrelenting diligence preceded by faith, he undertakes to complete the training in morality, etc.

Similarly, the Bodhisatta does not publicize his own good deeds, instead he confesses his faults without concealing them; he has few wishes, is easily contented, enjoys seclusion, is not given to social mixing; he endures hardships, and does not crave for this or that object nor does he get agitated; he is not haughty, not immodest, not scurrilous, not given to loose talk; he is quiet, calm and free from such wrong means of livelihood as fraud.

He is endowed with proper physical and verbal conduct and with own subjects for meditation; he sees danger even in the slightest fault and undertakes to observe well the rules of training; with no attachment to body or life, he has his mind directed only to attainment of Omniscience and Nibbāna and incessantly devotes himself to wholesome practices; he has not formed even the slightest attachment to body and life, instead he discards it; he dispels also defiling factors such as ill-will, malice, etc which will cause corruption of morality.

He does not remain complacent with minor achievements but strives for successively higher attainments. By such endeavours, his achievements in Jhāna, etc., do not get diminished or static at all but grow and develop more and more into higher and higher stages.

Likewise, the Bodhisatta helps the blind to reach the desired destination or directs them the right way. He communicates with the deaf and the dumb by signalling gestures (with his hands). He provides a chair or a vehicle to the cripple; or he carries them personally on his back to wherever they want to go.

He works hard so that those with poor faith may develop faith, the lazy may develop energy, the heedless, unmindful ones may develop mindfulness, the restless, worried ones may develop concertration and the ignorant, uninstructed one may develop wisdom; he strives to enable those troubled by hindrances to dispel such troubling factors and those oppressed by wrong thoughts of sensuality, ill-will and cruelty to remove such oppressing factors.

[ 80 ] To those who have helped him before, he shows his gratitude, greeting them with endearing words, honouring them in return with benefits similar to or even greater than those bestowed on him, in time of their misfortune he serves them as a boon companion.

Understanding the natural disposition of various beings, he assists them to be free from what is unwholesome and to become established in what is wholesome; he associates with them meeting their needs and wishes. (What is meant here is that he seeks their company and friendship to free them from evil and establish them in virtues by giving (dāna) to those who like gifts, by speaking endearing words (piya vācā) to those who like kindly speech, by showing; a life of usefulness (atthacariyā) to those who approve such a life, and by treating with a sense of justness (samānattatā) to those who wish to be treated like unto themselves.)

Likewise, even with a desire to serve their interest, the Bodhisatta does not hurt others or quarrel with them, does not humiliate them or make them remorse; he does not look down upon others finding fault with them; he does not place himself in a higher position in dealing with those who treat him without arrogance but with humility.

He does not keep himself completely aloof from others, but also avoids excessive familiarity or association at the wrong time. He keeps company with only those worthy to associate with at proper times and places; he does not speak ill of others in the presence of their friends or praise those who are not on good terms with them. He does not cultivate intimate friendship with those not appropriate to mix with.

He does not refuse a proper invitation, but he does not indulge in making excessive demands either; nor does he accept more than what he needs; he gives delight and encouragement to the faithful by giving a discourse on the merits of faith. Likewise, he gives delight and encouragement to those endowed with morality, learning, generosity and wisdom by giving discourses on the merits of these qualities.

[ 81 ] If the Bodhisatta in an existence happens to be accomplished in the attainments of Jhāna and Abhiññā, by exercising these powers he arouses fright in those beings who are negligent (in doing good deeds); showing them to a certain extent horrors in realms of misery, he gets those devoid of faith and other virtues established in faith, etc., and gives them access to the Buddha Dispensation. To those already endowed with faith, etc., he helps them gain maturity in those virtues.

In this manner, the Bodhisatta's Cāritta Sīla as the "flood" of immeasurable meritorious deeds grows bigger and bigger one existence after another.
(This is the method of fulfilling the Perfection of Morality.)

3. How the Perfection of Renunciation is fulfilled.

As already stated above, the Perfection of Renunciation is the group of consciousness and mental concomitants which desire emancipation from sense pleasures and existences which is founded on Mahākarunā and Upāya-kosalla Ñāna and which is preceded by the knowledge of disgusting and dreadful faults in them. Therefore the Bodhisatta undertakes first to discern the faults (as they truly are) in sense pleasures and existences by means of the knowledge of disgust and dread (Ādinava Ñāṇa).

This is how he discerns these faults: "Because household life is the dwelling place of all kinds of defilements, because there are impediments such as wife and children, etc restricting one's meritorious performances, because one gets involved and entangled in multifarious activities such as trading and cultivation, it is not a proper place where happiness of renunciation can be achieved".

The sensual pleasures of men, like a drop of honey on the sharp edges of a sword, prove to be more harmful rather than enjoyable; their enjoyment is short-lived like a theatrical show seen only by intermittent flashes of lightning; they are enjoyed only through perverted perception (which is disorderly) like the ornaments of a madman; they are as deceptive as a camouflaging object which conceals a heap of excreta, as unsatisfying as licking the moisture on the fingers; they are afflictive, damaging like the gorging of food by a famished person causing hordes of misfortune like the bait on a [ 82 ] hook causing dukkha in the past, present and future like the heat of burning fires; they are being sticky like the gum of a plant (makkata lepa); they form a means to conceal destructive objects like the mantle of a murderer. Thus discerning first the disadvantages in sense pleasures and existences and then the advantages of liberality from them, which is nekkhamma, the Bodhisatta fulfils the Perfection of Renunciation.

Since going forth from household life is the foundation of the Perfection of Renunciation, at a time when there is no teaching of a Buddha, in order to fulfil this perfection, the Bodhisatta takes up an ascetic life under recluses or wanderers who uphold the doctrine of action (kamma vādi) and the doctrine of efficacy of action (kiriya vādi). However, when an Enlightened One appears in the World, he joins the Order of Bhikkhus in the Dispensation of the Buddha.(Sūsanā)

Having thus gone forth, he establishes himself in the Vāritta Sīla and Cāritta Sīla as described above and in order to purify these sīlas, he undertakes the ascetic practices (dhutangas)³⁷.

The Bodhisatta who has thus washed away the mental defilements with the clean water of sīla fortified by dhutaṅga practices becomes endowed with blameless, pure physical and verbal conduct; he shows contentment with any available robe, alms-food and dwelling; having followed the first three of the four tradtions of the Ariyas³⁸ (Ariyavamsattaya), he strives to achieve the fourth one, the delight in meditation (bhāvanārama) by practising an appropriate one out of the prescribed forty meditation subjects till he attains the stages of Jhāna Access (Upacāra) and Absorption (Appanā). Attainment of Absorption Jhāna is the Bodhisatta's complete fulfilment of the Perfection of Renunciation.

(Details on the forty subjects of meditation may be obtained from the Visuddhimagga.)

(This is the method of fulfilling the Perfection of Renunciation.)

[ 83 ] 4. How the Perfection of Wisdom is fulfilled.

As the light of wisdom cannot co-exist with the darkness of bewilderment (moha), the Bodhisatta who is fulfilling the Perfection of Wisdom avoids the causes of bewilderment such as aversion to wholesomeness (arati), laziness, stretching out one's limbs in drowsiness, etc., and applies himself with ardour to acquisition of wide knowledge, various kinds of Jhāna, etc.

(Wisdom is of three kinds: (a) Sutamaya Paññā, (b) Cintāmaya Paññā, and (c) Bhāvanāmaya Paññā.)

(a) Sutamaya Pannā.

In order to bring Sutamaya Paññā, otherwise known as Bāhusacca, to maturity, the Bodhisatta develops it through careful study, listening, learning, memorization, interrogation and investigation with mindfulness, energy and wisdom preceded by Upāya-kosalla Ñāna; the whole field of Sutamaya Paññā is made up of (i) the five aggregates, the twelve sense-bases, the eighteen elements, the Four Truths, the twenty-two faculties, the law of Dependent Origination, the methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, etc., which constitute factors of Enlightenment as well as various categories of Dhamma such as wholesome, unwholesome, etc.; and (ii) blameless, mundane forms of knowledge which promote the welfare and happiness of beings. In this way the Bodhisatta develops Sutamaya Paññā and becomes a man of wisdom who has delved into the entire field of it himself and established others too in it.

Likewise, in order to serve the interest of beings the Bodhisatta develops the wisdom that arises instantaneouly to find suitable means right on the spot (Thānuppattika patibhāna Ñāṇa), which is also known as Upāya-kosalla Ñāna. By means of this wisdom, the Bodhisatta is able to distinguish the factors which will promote growth and prosperity from those which will contribute to their ruin and destruction in various undertakings of beings.

[ 84 ] (b) Cintāmaya Paññā.

Likewise, the Bodhisatta develops Cintāmaya Paññā by reflecting penetratingly on natural phenomena, absolute realities such as aggregates, etc.

(Careful study, listening, learning, memorization of natural phenomena such as aggregates is Sutamaya Paññā. Thinking first and then reflecting on these natural phenomena, which one has studied, learnt, memorized is Cintāmaya Paññā)

(c) Bhavanamaya Panna.

Likewise, the Bodhisatta who has developed the mundane kinds of thorough understanding of natural phenomena such as aggregates, etc., by discerning their specific as well as general characteristics proceeds to perfect and fulil the preliminary portion of the wisdom gained by meditation (Bhāvanamaya Paññā) namely, the nine Insight Knowledge (Vipassana Nāna) such as knowledge of conditioned things (Sammasana Nāṇa), their impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, being not-self), etc.

By thus perfecting and fulfilling the Insight Knowledge, the Bodhisatta comprehends fully the external and internal objects only as mental and physical phenomena: "This group of natural phenomena, which is merely nāma-rūpa, arises and ceases according to conditions; in reality there is no one who creates or causes others to create; nāma-rūpa as a reality arises only to disappear and therefore is impermanent; it is unsatisfactory because of its constant arising and ceasing; it is uncontrollable, ungovernable, and is therefore not-self." Thus comprehending the real nature of both internal and external objects without distinction, he abandons attachment to them and helps others do as well.

During this period preceding the attainment of Buddhahood, the Bodhisatta, through great compassion, helps beings step into the three vehicles of practice, paṭipatti, by which beings may gain maturity in the three kinds of Enlightenment) or reach maturity in their practice if they have already stepped into them.

[ 85 ] As for himself, the Bodhisatta strives to achieve five kinds of mastery over mundane Jhānas and various Abhiññās and with the great help rendered by the concentration associated with these Jhānas and Abhññās, he reaches the pinnacle of Wisdom.

(As to methods of developing the mundane Jhānas and Abhiññās and the ten kinds of Knowledge of Insight, reference may be made to the Visuddhimagga. It is especially to be noted, however, that in the Visuddhimagga, the development of Wisdom for a Future Disciple is explained up to the stage of attainment of the Path. Here in this work, however, as it is intended for the Bodhisatta who aspires to Enlightenment, all the endeavours for development of meditation is preceded by Mahakaruna and Upāya-Kosalla Ñāna and stop short at the sixth stage of Purity of Knowledge following the Right Path (Patipadā ñānadassana Visuddhi) before the attainment of the Path also called the stage of Purity of Knowledge of the Path and Fruition (Ñāṇadassana Visuddhi). As regards the ten stages of Knowledge of Insight, the development of Wisdom is carried out as far as the first part of the Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations (Saṅkhārupekkhā Ñāna), giving attention only to the nine lower stages of Vipassana Insight.) (This is the method of fulfilling the Perfection of Wisdom.)

5. How the Perfection of Energy, etc., are fulfilled.

Just as a general, intent upon vanquishing his foes, strives ceaselessly, even so the Bodhisatta who seeks to overcome unaided the enemies of defilement and who wants other beings also to make similar conquests works arduously all the time in fulfilment of the Perfections.

Therefore the Bodhisatta continuously reflects with mindfulness: "What have I accumulated it, the way of requisites of merit and wisdom today? What have I done for the welfare of others today?" Reflecting thus every day, he works energetically to be of service to other beings.

[ 86 ] In order to help beings he gives away generously his possessions including life and limb. Whatever he does bodily or verbally, be does so with his mind inclined towards Omniscience; whatever merit accrues from such action is dedicated to the attainment of full Enlightenment.

He turns away with a mind for emancipation from objects of sense pleasures even if they are of superior kind or in small amount, not to speak of inferior objects of sense pleasures or in abundant quantity.

In every undertaking, he develops and applies Upaya-kosalla Ñana.

He always works assiduously for the welfare of beings.

He bears with patience all sense objects whether desirable or undesirable.

He stands firm on truth, not deviating from it even for the sake of his life.

He suffuses all beings, not making any discrimination, with loving-kindness and compassion. Just as a father wishes to take upon himself the suffering of his children, even so he wishes to take upon himself all the suffering that would befall beings.

He rejoices in the meritorious deeds of all beings. He keeps reflecting on the greatness of Buddhas and the greatness of their powers. Whatever action he takes bodily or verbally, he does so only with his mind inclined towards Perfect Enlightenment.

In this manner, the Bodhisatta, being constantly devoted to meritorious deeds such as dāna, etc., makes an incomparable accummulation of requisities of merit and wisdom day by day.

Furthermore, having relinquished his own life and limb for the use and protection of beings, he seeks ways and means and applies them for the alleviation of various kinds of suffering borne by beings -- hunger, thirst, cold, heat, wind, sun, etc.

[ 87 ] Whatever happiness he derives from removal of the said afflictions, the various physical and mental comfort that results from staying in delightful parks, gardens, mansions, pools, and forest abodes, the bliss of Jhanic attainments enjoyed by Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas, Ariya sāvaka and Bodhisattas after renunciation as he has heard from others, he wishes to make all this happiness available to all beings without distinction.

(All the activities of the Bodhisatta so far described relate to those engaged in before he has attained Jhānas).

When he has become accomplished in Jhānas, he endeavours to bestow the fruits of Jhānas he himself has enjoyed -- rapture, calm, happiness, concentration, knowledge of things as they really are ---- 'on beings so that they may also relish them even as he has done for himself.

Furthermore, he sees beings engulfed and helpless in the great suffering of the round of rebirths (samsāra vatta dukkha), in the suffering caused by defilement (kilesa dukkha), and in the suffering caused by kamma formations (abhisaṅkhāra dukkha) which keep beings in saṃsāra.

This is how he sees the suffering beings: he distinctly sees beings as inmates in the realms of misery (niraya) experiencing continuous, intense agony for a long time, being cut up, severed, amputated, pulverized and subjected to fierce burning.

He distinctly sees beings as animals undergoing great suffering through mutual animosity, oppression, causing injury, killing one another, or having to toil in the service of others.

He distinctly sees beings as ghosts enveloped in raging flames, consumed and withered by hunger, thirst, wind, sun, etc., feeding on what has been vomitted, on spittle, phlegm, etc., and throwing up their arms in lamentation.

[ 88 ] He distinctly sees some beings as humans, ruined in their search for means of livelihood; suffering punishment such as cutting off of their hands, feet, etc., for crimes committed by them; horrible to look at, ugly, deformed; deeply immersed in the mire of suffering, not distinguishable from the suffering of the inmates of niraya. Some humans, afflicted by hunger and thirst due to shortage of food are suffering just like famished ghosts. Some of them being numerically and materially weak are vanquished by the more powerful, pressed into their services and made dependent on their masters for their livelihood. He sees their suffering not being different from those of animals.

The Bodhisatta distinctly sees Devas of the six realms of sensual pleasures (who are seen only as happy ones by humans) suffering from restlessness as they have swallowed the 'poison' of sense plesures and burning with fires of greed, hatred and bewilderment, like a blazing pile of dry firewood stoked up with blasts of wind, with never a moment of peace,always struggling desperately dependent upon others for mere existence.

He distinctly sees the Brahmas of the Fine Material and Immaterial realms, after existing there for the long life-span of eighty-four thousand mahā kappas, succumb to the natural law of impermanence and finally plunge back into unsurmountable rounds of suffering of birth, ageing, and death as do birds propelled with tremendous energy far, far into space or arrows shot into the sky by a strong man.

Seeing their suffering vividly in this manner, the Bodhisatta feels a sense of religious urgency (samvega), and suffuses all beings with loving kindness and compassion without discrimination in the thirty one planes of existence.

The Bodhisatta, who in this way accumulates without interruption the requisities of Enlightenment by way of good physical, verbal and mental actions, strives thoroughly and with constant perseverance in order that all the Pāramīs may reach the height of fulfilment.

[ 89 ] Again, Energy which is responsible for conveying him to Buddhahood--the repository of inconceivable, incomparable, extensive, undefiled, pure attributes--is of unthinkable might. Ordinary people dare not even hear about this energy of the Bodhisatta, much less exercise it.

To explain further: It is only through the power of this energy that the Bodhisatta develops, accumulates and fulfils the requisites of Enlightenment--three aspirations towards Omniscient Buddhahood with the thoughts of attaining Buddhahood (Buddho bodheyyam), of achieving liberation (mutto moceyyam) and of crossing the ocean of samsāra (tiṇṇo tāreyyam); (as has been described in Chapter VI. What are the basic conditions of the Pāramīs?) the four grounds of Buddhahood³⁹; the four ways of gaining friendship⁴⁰; the single function of compassion; reflection on the unique condition for Buddhahood by realization of Buddha qualities; being untainted with craving, conceit and wrong view concerning all things; perceiving all beings as his own dear children; not being wearied by suffering of samsāra while striving for Buddhahood; relinquishing everything that could be given away; and in so relinquishing not being conceited with the thought, "There is none in the universe to match me in generosity"; applying oneself to development of higher morality, higher concentration and higher wisdom; being unshakeable in the practice of these virtues; being joyful, happy and delighted with meritorious deeds; being inclined to three forms of seclusion⁴¹; application to development of Jhānas; being insatiable with blameless dhammas; teaching the Dhammas one has heard to others out of goodwill; making great efforts to initiate meritorious deeds in fulfilment of the Perfections; unremitting perseverance intensified by courage; remaining unperturbed by accusations and [ 90 ] wrongs of others; being firmly established in truth; gaining mastery over Jhāna attainments; achieving power in Abhiññas; comprehending the three charateristics (anicca, dukkha, anatta); accumulating the requisites for the four supramundane Paths through practice of Steadfast Mindfulness (Satipatthāna), etc.; and becoming accomplished in the nine supramundane Dhammas⁴². All these endeavours to develop, accumulate and fulfil the requisites of Enlightenment can be made only with powers of Energy. Therefore the Bodhisatta has, from the time of forming the aspiration until attainment of Buddhahood, worked to perfect his Energy thoroughly, incessantly, assiduously without any relaxation, so that it will enable him to advance to higher and higher stages of distinguished Dhamma.

When this forward-driving (parakkama) Perfection of Energy has been fulfilled, the Perfections of Forbearance, Truthfulness etc.which follow it as well as those of Generosity, Morality, etc., which precede it become fulfilled since all of them are dependent on Energy for their perfection. Therefore fulfilment of the Perfection of Forbearance and the remaining ones should be understood in the same manner.

Thus, benefitting others in various ways by relinquishing objects of offering which contribute to the happiness of being is fulfilment through generosity.

Non-destruction and protection of life, property and family of beings, not causing dissension, speaking endearing, beneficial words. etc., constitute fulfilment through morality.

Likewise, performance of many beneficial acts such as accepting the four requisites given by beings and giving the gift of Dhamma to them is fufilment through renunciation; having skill in ways and means of promoting the welfare of beings is fulfilment through wisdom; striving with zeal, undergoing difficulties without slacking in the use of that skill is fulfilment through energy; bearing [ 91 ] with patience all the wrong of beings is fulfilment through forbearance; not deceiving, not breaking the pledge of help to beings is fulfilment through truthfulness; remaining unshaken even when his interests suffer as a result of rendering service to beings is fulfilment through resolution; contemplating repeatedly the welfare and happiness of beings is fulfilment through loving-kindness; being unmoved when helped or troubled by others is fulfilment through equanimity.

Thus the Bodhisatta endeavours for an accumulation of incomparable merit and wisdom, not shared by common people, made for the sake of infinite beings and his thorough, careful fulfilment of the basic conditions of the Pāramīs as mentioned above-all these undertakings may be taken in brief as practising the Pāramīsampatti.

11. Classification of the Pāramīs.

To the question, "How many Pāramīs are there?," the answer in brief is: There are thirty Pāramīs, namely, ten Ordinary Perfections (Pāramī), ten Higher Perfections (Upapāramī) and ten Highest Perfections (Paramattha Pāramī).

(With respect to Dāna, there is Dāna Pāramī, Dāna Upaparamī and Dāna Paramattha Pāramī; so also with regard to the nine remaining Pāramīs such as Sīla, Nekkhamma, etc., each one is of three different kinds and therefore the original ten Pāramīs become thirty in all.)

Pāramī, Upapārami and Paramattha Pāramī.

To the questions "What is Pāramī, Upapāramī and Paramattha Pāramī?" the answer is provided in the Chapter on Miscellany in the Commentary to the Cariyā Piṭaka. Therein, the Commentator answers this question elaborately, giving different interpretations, views and comments by diverse teachers. To reproduce them all in this work will cause only confusion to reders; so we shall give here only the decided view preferred by the Commentator Mahā Dhammapāla Thera himself.

[ 92 ] (1) Giving away one's external objects such as wife, children, wealth and property is Dāna Pāramī,' giving up one's limbs, such as hands, feet, etc., is Dāna Upapāramī; giving up one's life is Dāna Paramattha Pāramī.

(2) Likewise, observing a precept and not making a breach on account of one's external objects such as wife, children, wealth and property is Sīla Pāramī; observing a precept and not making a breach on account of one's limbs, such as hands, feet, etc., is Sīla Upapāramī; observing a precept and not making a breach on account of one' s life is Sīla Paramattha Pāramī.

(3) Cutting off attachment to one's external objects and going forth from household life is Nekkhamma Pāramī; cutting off attachment to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., and going forth from household life is Nekkhamma Upapārami; cutting off attachment to one's life and going forth from household life is Nekkhamma Paramattha Pāramī.

(4) Rooting out attachment to one's external objects and deciding deliberately what is beneficial to beings and what is not is Paññā Pāramī; rooting out attachment to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., and deciding deliberately what is beneficial to beings and what is not is Paññā Upapāramī; rooting out attachment to one's life and deciding deliberately what is beneficial to beings and what is not is Paññā Paramattha Pāramī.

(5) Striving to fulfil and become accomplished in the aforesaid Pāramīs and those to be mentioned later is Viriya Pāramī,' striving to fulfil and become accomplished in the aforesaid Upapāramis and those to be mentioned later is Viriya Upapārami; striving to fulfil and become accomplished in the aforesaid Paramattha Pāramīs and those to be mentioned later is Viriya Paramattha Pāramī.

(6) Bearing with patience the vicissitudes which endanger one's external objects is Khantī Pāramī; bearing with patience the vicissitudes which endanger one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., is Khantī Upapārami; bearing with patience the vicissitudes which endanger one's life is Khantī Paramattha Pāramī.

[ 93 ] (7) Not abandoning truth on account of one's external objects is Sacca Pāramī; not abandoning truth on account of one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., is Sacca Upapāramī; not abandoning truth on account of one's life is Sacca Paramattha Pāramī.

(8) Unshakeable determination in spite of destruction of one's external objects while holding firmly that Pāramīs such, as Dāna, etc., can be fulfilled only with indestructible determination is Adhiṭṭhāna Pāramī; unshakeable determination in spite of destruction of one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., is Adhitthāna Upapāramī; unshakeable determination inspite of destruction of one's life is Adhiṭṭhāna Paramattha Pāramī.

(9) Not abandoning loving-kindness towards beings (continuous suffusion of beings with loving-kindness ) even if they have caused destruction to one's external objects is Mettā Pāramī; not abandoning loving kindness towards beings even if they have caused destruction to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., is Mettā Upapāramī; not abandoning loving-kindness towards beings even if they have caused destruction to one's life is Mettā Paramattha Pāramī.

(10) Maintaining a neutral attitude towards beings and their volitional activities irrespective of whether they have been helpful or harmful to one's external objects is Upekkhā Pāramī; maintaining a neutral attitude towards beings and their volitional activities irrespective of whether they have been helpful or harmful to one's limbs such as hands, feet, etc., is Upekkhā Upapāiramī; maintaining a neutral attitude towards beings and their volitional activities irrespective of whether they have been helpful or harmful to one's life is Upekkha Paramattha Pāramī.

In this way, Classification of the Pāramīs should be understood.

(This is the Classification of the Pāramīs.)

[ 94 ] 12. What is the synopsis of the Pāramis?

To the question, "What is the synopsis of the Pāramīs?" the answer is:
The thirty Pāramīs can be reduced to ten by grouping together those of same nature, (e.g. three kinds of Dāna Pāramī into one; three kinds of Sīla Pāramī into one and so on). Similarly these ten Pāramīs may further be reduced to six by grouping together those of related nature, viz, Dāna Pāramī, Sīla Pāramī, Khantī Pāramī, Viriya Paramī, Jhāna Pāramī and Pañña Pāramī.

This is how abridgement is made: Renunciation (Nekkhamma) means taking up an ascetic life, Jhāna and general meritoriousness. Here Nekkhamma as taking up an ascetic life should be counted as Sīla Pāramī because they are of similar nature; in the same way Nekkhamma as Jhāna, free from hindrances (nīvarana) should be counted as Jhāna Pāramī; and Nekkhamma as general meritoriousness belong to all the six Pāramīs.

Truthfulness is of three kinds: Truthful speech (vacīsacca); abstaining from falsehold (viratisacca) which is mental concomitant of right speech (sammāvācā); and truthful wisdom (ñāṇasacca) which is mental concomitant of wisdom (paññā). (Nibbāna Which is Absolute Truth, Paramattha Sacca, is not relevant here.) Of these, vacisacca and viratisacca being related to sīla should be counted as Sīla Paramī; ñāṇasacca being the concomitant of wisdom should be counted as Paññā Pāramī.

Mettā Pāramī which is similar in nature to Jhāna Pāramī is thus included in the latter.

Upekkhā Paramī consists of concomitant of Tatramajjhattatā and Paññā; Tatramajjhattatā should be counted as the Jhāna Pāramī to which it is related; and concomitant of Paññā which is the same as Nanupekkhā should be counted as Paññā Pāramī.

Adhitthana Pāramī should be included in all the six Pāramīs of Dāna, Sīla, Khantī, Vīriya, Jhāna and Paññā.(Unshakeable determination in performance of Dāna should be counted as [ 95 ] Dāna Pāramī; likewise, unshakeable determination in matters related to Sīla, Khantī, Vīriya, Jhāna and Paññā should be included in their respective Pāramīs.)

Advantages of pairing the six Pāramīs.

First of all the six abridged Pāramīs, namely Dāna, Sīla, Khantī, Viriya, Jhāna and Paññā could be formed into fifteen pairs as follows:

(a) Dāna and Sīla, (h) Sīla and Jhāna,
(b) Dāna and Khantī, (i) Sīla and Paññā,
(c) Dāna and Vīriya, (j) Khanti and Vīriya,
(d) Dāna and Jhāna, (k) Khantī and Jhāna,
(e) Dāna and Paññā (l) Khanti and Paññā,
(f) Sīla and Khantī, (m) Viriya and Jhāna,
(g) Sīla and Wīriya, (n) Vīriya and Paññā, and
(o) Jhāna and Paññā,

The Bodhisatta accomplishes

(a) through the pair of Dāna and Sīla, the double merit of doing what is beneficial to others and of abstaining from what is harmful to them;

(b) through the pair of Dāna and Khantī, the double benefit of non-greed and non-hatred;

(d) through the pair of Dāna and Jhāna, the double of merit of abandoning sensual desires and ill-will;

(e) through the pair of Dāna and Paññā, the double of merit of concentration and insight meditation; and also the double merit of learning the Text Pariyatti and meditation;

(f) through the pair of Sīla and Khanti, the double benefit merit of purity of bodily and verbal conduct and purity of mental disposition;

[ 96 ] (g) through the pair of Sīla and Vīriya, the double merit of Concentration and Insight Meditation;

(h) through the pair of Sīla and Jhāna, the double merit of abandoning vītikkama kilesa and pariyutthāna kilesa; (Vītikkama kilesa is defilement which produces evil actions in deed and word; it is removed by Sīla. Pariyutthāna kilesa is defilement which is violently active only in the mind; it is removed by Jhāna);

(i) through the pair of Sīla and Paññā, the double gift of harmlessness (abhaya dāna) and gift of Dhamma (Dhamma dāna); the gift of harmlessness is possible only when endowed with sīla; and gift of Dhamma, when endowed with Paññā);

(j) through the pair of Khanti and Vīriya, the double quality of patience and perseverance; (the vicissitudes of life can be withstood only with forebearance; and it is only when there is energy that meritorious deeds are performed with zeal and enthusiasm);

(k) through the pair of Khantī and Jhāna, the double benefit of abandoning hostility that arise out of ill-will and of favouritism that arises out of greed; (without Khantī one is opposed to undesirable aspect of the world out of ill-will; without Jhāna one is overwhelmed by desirable aspect of the world out of greed);

(l) through the pair of Khantī and Paññā, the double benefit of comprehending the voidness of the soul in nāma-rūpa and of penetrative insight into Nibbāna;

(m) through the pair of Vīriya and Jhāna, the double benefit of effort (paggaha) and balanced state of mind (avikkhepa);

(n) through the pair of Vīriya and Pañña, the double benefit of being a refuge of beings and that of himself (refuge of beings by means of Vīriya; refuge of self by means of Paññā); and

(o) through the pair of Jhāna and Paññā, the double benefit of concentration and Insight Medition.

[ 97 ] Advantages accruing from triads.

(Similarly, there are advantages of grouping the Pāramis into triads.)

The Bodhisatta accomplishes the triple benefit

(1) of abandoning greed, hatred and bewilderment, the three roots of demeritoriousness, through the triad of Dāna, Sīla and Khanti;

(2) of extracting of essence from one's wealth, from one's physical body and from one's life; (being associated with five enemies, wealth and property are void of intrinsic values; their real worth is giving them away, dāna; being subjected to various ills and ailments, the body is devoid of substance; its real essence is observance of precepts, sīla; ultimately ending up in destruction, life is devoid of substance; its real essence is development of Insight Meditation. The Commentary on the Kanha Jātaka of the Dasaka Nipāta gives an account on these subjects);

(3) of the meritorious deeds of Dāna, Sīla, Bhāvanā through the triad of Dāna, Sīla and Jhāna;

(4) of three kinds of gift, namely, the gift of material objects, the gift of harmlessness and the gift of Dhamma, through Dāna, Sīla and Paññā; (through Dāna the gift of material objects is accomplished; through Sīla the gift of harmlessness and through Pañña, the gift of Dhamma).

In this way gaining of triple, quadruple benefits through the remaining triads and tetrads may be understood as is appropriate in each case.

[ 98 ] Method of enumerating the six Pāramīs by including them in the four Foundations (Adhitthāna)⁴³

Having shown how the ten Pāramīs could be condensed into six by combining similar ones, it could be shown again how the six can be included in the four Foundations;

(i) Foundation of Truthfulness (Saccādhiṭṭhāna)
(ii) Foundation of Abandonment (Cāgadhiṭṭhāna)
(iii) Foundation of Tranquility (Upasamādhiṭṭhana), and
(iv) Foundation of Wisdom (Paññādhiṭṭhana)

(i) Foundation of Truthfulness means: Nibbāna which is Absolute Truth, the Paramattha Sacca together with initial practices which leads to Nibbāna (pubbabhaga paṭipadā), namely truthful speech (vacīsacca), abstention from falsehood (viratī sacca) which is mental concomitant of right speech (sammāvācā) and truthful wisdom (ñānasacca) which is mental concomittant of wisdom (Paññā). (The vacīsacca, viratīsacca and ñānasacca form a supporting foundation for the Bodhisatta to stand on in the course of existences during which the Pāramīs are fulfilled and in the existence when he becomes a Buddha; Nibbāna as Paramattha Sacca forms a supporting foundation on which he stands when he becomes a Buddha. Hence they constitute Saccādhitthāna.)

(ii) Foundation of Abandonment means: abandonment and uprooting of all mental defilements without any remnant by means of Arahattamagga and forsaking, in the initial stage while still a Bodhisatta, of sense objects and sense desires through fulfilment of the Pāramīs such as Dāna, etc., (While fulfiling the Pāramis as a [ 99 ] Bodhisatta he is not able to abandon and uproot mental defilements without any remnant; he can only forsake sense objects as far as possible through Dāna Pāramī etc., and put away sense desires temporarily (tadangapahāna) and to a distance (vikkhambhana pahāna); only in this way can the Bodhisatta build a supporting foundation to stand on. Only when he achieves Arahatta phala and Omniscience and becomes a Buddha is he firmly established on the foundation of complete abandonment and uprooting of defilements without any remnant. Therefore complete abandonment and uprooting of defilements by means of Arahattamagga and putting away sense objects and sense desires temporarily or to a distance constitute Cāgadiṭṭhāna).

(iii) Foundation of Tranquility means: complete calming of all the ' fever of defilements' by means of Arahatta magga, allaying the suffering in the cycle of rebirths, when Nibbāna is realized, and putting away the 'fever of defilements' temporarily or to a distance through fulfilment of the Pāramīs such as Dāna etc., while still a Bodhisatta. (While fulfilling the Pāramīs as a Bodhisatta the 'fever of defilements' and suffering in the cycle of rebirth have not completely subsided yet. Therefore through the Pāramīs such as Dāna, etc., which form the means of allaying them, the Bodhidatta puts away the 'fever of defilements' temporarily or to a distance. By such practices only, the Bodhisatta builds for himself a temporary supporting foundation to stand on. It is only when he attains Buddhahood that he is firmly established on the supporting foundation through complete removal of the 'fever of defilements' and of the suffering in the cycle of rebirths. Hence calming of the 'fever of defilements', and of the suffering in the cycle of rebirths constitute Upasamādhiṭṭhāna.)

(iv) Foundation of Wisdom means: the Arahatta phala Insight, Omniscience and all kinds of wisdom such as Upāya-kosalla Ñāna, etc., which have arisen earlier in the mental continuum of the Bodhisatta.(In his existences as a Bodhisatta, he remains with the earlier forms of wisdom such as Upāya-kosalla Ñāna. etc., It is only when he attains Buddhahood that he is firmly established on the supporting foundation of Arahatta phala Insight and Omniscience. Hence all the various kinds of aforesaid wisdom constitute Paññādhiṭṭhāna).

[ 100 ] For the ignorant common worldlings who have only sense objects and sense desires to rely on, these sense-objects and sense desires constitute their foundation. As for the Bodhidsatta who clearly sees danger in them, he establishes himself on the four supporting foundations of Sacca, Caga, Upasama and Paññā which lead from these sense-objects and sense desires to freedom which is Nibbāna. Therefore these four factors constitute the supporting foundations for the Bodhisatta.

How fulfilment of the four Adhitthānas takes place in the mental continuum of the Bodhisatta.

After receiving the definite prophecy of gaining Buddhahood, the Bodhisatta investigates the Pāramīs by means of Perfection-investigating Wisdom (Pāramī-pavicaya Nāna); having done so, he makes a vow to fulfil all the Pāramīs; then he proceeds to fulfil them all in keeping with this vow. Thus Saccādhiṭṭhāna becomes manifest in the mental continuum of the Bodhisatta.

While the Pāramīs are being fulfilled there occur abandonment of defilements which oppose them and there also occur abandonment of sense-objects and sense desires. Thus Cagādhiṭṭhāna also becomes manifest.

As there is extinction of defilements by virtue of the Pāramīs, Upasamāditthāna also becomes manifest.

Through these same Pāramis the Bodhisatta becomes endowed with Upāya-kosalla Ñāna and Paññāditthāna also becomes manifest.

(What is meant here is: whenever he fulfils the ten Pāramīs or the six Pāramīs, or whenever he performs a meritorious deed related to the Pāramīs, there become manifest in the mental continuum of the Bodhisatta: (i) Saccādiṭṭhana which is the endeavour without fail to implement the vow he has made; (ii) Cāgadhiṭṭhāna which is the abandonment of defilements opposing the Pāramīs; (iii) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is the extinction of the defilements; and (iv) Pannādhiṭṭhāna which is the skill in ways and means for promotion of welfare of beings. Therefore the six Pāramis can again be condensed into the four Adhiṭṭhānas of Sacca, Cāga, Upasama and Pañña.)

[ 101 ] When a person engaged in a blameless business venture finds it profitable as intended, he keeps pursuing that venture with increasing industry and vigour. Here the profit accruing from the initial business venture is the cause; increasing industry and vigour in the pursuance of it is the effect of that cause.

In a similar manner, when the Bodhisatta undertakes to perform blameless meritorious deeds of Pāramī, he comes to enjoy the benefit of these meritorious deeds in the form of the four Adhiṭṭhānas, namely, the sweet taste of Vacīsacca ("Saccam have sādhutaram rasānam", Yakkha Samyutta); the abandonment of defilement, Cāga; extinction of the 'fever of defilements', Upasamā; and Upāya-kosalla Ñāṇa. He keeps on performing these meritorious deeds of Pāramī with increasing industry and vigour, existence after existence. Here the benefit of these meritorious deeds in the form of the four Adhiṭṭhāna is the cause and the meritorious deeds of Pāramī repeated with increasing industry and vigour are the effect of that cause. It should be understood that occurance of meritorious deeds of Pāramī and occurance of the four Adhiṭṭhānas are one and the same thing expressed in different words.

To describe them in detail:

(i) While in the course of performing the good deeds of Dāna Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefits accruing from (a) Saccādhiṭṭhāna which is performance of an act of Dāna without fail in accordance with his vow, "I will make an offering when I see someone seeking gifts"; (b) Cāgādhiṭṭhāna which is abandonment of demeritorious stinginess, etc., opposed to generosity; (c) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is extinction of greed for gift materials, of hatred (which occurs to those who are reluctant to make gifts) towards those who come for gifts; of bewilderment as to Dāna; bewilderment tends to occur when one is not used to making gifts); of fear of waste which arises in unwilling givers when they see loss or destruction of gift materials brought about somehow or other; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhāna which is offering gifts befittingly at the proper time as planned, and preceded by wisdom.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhitthānas, the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Dāna Pāramī all the more.

[ 102 ] (ii) Likewise, while in the course of fulfilling the Sīla Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefit accruing from (a) Saccādhitthāna which is non-transgression of precepts in accordance with his vow, (b) Cāgādhiṭṭhāna which is abandonment of immoral unwholesome volition, and demeritoriousness; (c) Upasamādhṭṭhāna which is extinction of harm caused by wrong deeds; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhāna which is wisdom playing a dominant role.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhiṭṭhānas, the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Sīla Pāramī all the more.

(iii) While in the course of fulfilling the Khantī Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefit accruing from (a) Saccādhiṭṭhāna, which is practice of forebearance without fail in accordance with his vow; (b) Cāgādhitthāna which is abandonment of wrong thoughts caused by wrong deeds and words of others; (c) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is extinction of violent anger; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhānā which is wisdom playing a dominent role.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhiṭṭhānas; the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Khantī Pāramī all the more.

(iv) While in the course of fulfilling the Vīriya Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefit accruing from (a) Saccādhiṭṭhānā, which is working for the welfare of others in accordance with his vow; (b) Cāgādhiṭṭhāna which is abandonment of slackness and inefficiency; (c) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is extinction of harm caused by demeritoriousness; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhāna which is wisdom playing a dominent role.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhiṭṭhānas; the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Viriya Pāramī all the more.

(v) While in the course of fulfilling the Jhāna Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefit accruing from (a) Saccādhiṭṭhāna which is thinking deeply about and seeking the welfare of the World in accordance with his vow; (b) Cāgādhiṭṭhāna which is abandonment of demeritorious hindrances (nīvaraṇas), (c) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is peace of mind; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhāna which is wisdom playing a dominent role.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhiṭṭhanas, the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Jhāna Pāramī all the more.

[ 103 ] (vi) While in the course of fulfilling the Paññā Pāramī, the Bodhisatta comes to enjoy the benefit accruing from (a) Saccādhiṭṭhana which is skill in means and ways of promoting welfare of others in accordance with his vow; (b) Cāgādhiṭṭhāna which is abandonment of wrong paths and actions; (c) Upasamādhiṭṭhāna which is extinction of all forms of worries and anxieties caused through one's ignorance; (d) Paññādhiṭṭhāna which is wisdom playing a dominant role.

Having enjoyed the benefit of these four Adhiṭṭhānas, the Bodhisatta keeps on developing the Paññā Pāramī all the more.

In this manner, with every act of merit in fulfilment of the Pāramīs, there occur the four Adhiṭṭhānas; hence it is said that the six Pāramīs may be included in the four Adhiṭṭhānas.

The four Adhiṭṭhānas counted as a single Adhiṭṭhāna.

Just as the six Pāramīs are included in the four Adhiṭṭhānas, so also each of the four Adhiṭṭhānas may be counted as embracing the remaining three. This is how it is effected.

Like Saccādhiṭṭhāna, Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, Upasamādhiṭṭhāna and Paññādhiṭṭhāna being of the nature of faithful performance in keeping with the vow may be included in Saccadhiṭṭhāna.

Like Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, Saccādhitthāna, Upasamāhiṭṭhāna and Paññāhiṭṭhāna are being of the nature of abandonment of opposing factors and being the result of total relinquishing may be included in Cāgādhiṭṭhāna.

Like Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, Saccāhiṭṭhāna, Cāgādhitthāna and Paññādhiṭṭhāna being of the nature of extinction of all the heat caused by one's deeds and defilements may be included in Upasamādhiṭṭāna.

Saccādhiṭṭhāna, Cāgādhiṭṭhana and Upasamāhiṭṭhāna, following Paññā as their leader may be included in Paññāhiṭṭhāna.

[ 104 ] How the Adhiṭṭhānas bring benefits.

Thus all the Pāramīs have their commencement with Saccādhitthāna; they become manifest through Cāgadhiṭṭthana; they grow and prosper through Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, and by means of Paññādhitthāna, they distance themselves from defilements and become purified of all of them.

Furthermore, in the first phase of the Pāramīs, Saccādhiṭṭhāna plays a leading role; only with Saccādhiṭṭhāna fulfilment of the Pāramīs can be commenced. In the middle phase, Cāgādhiṭṭhāna takes the leading role; having commenced the fulfilment of the Pāramīs with Saccāhiṭṭhāna, it is continued in the middle phase by sacrificing totally one's body and life for the welfare of others through Cāgādhiṭṭhāna. In the final phase, Upasamādhiṭṭhana takes over the leadership; only with the extinction of all the suffering of samsāra, the task of fulfiling the Pāramīs comes to an end.

Paññādhiṭṭhāna is supreme throughout all the three phases of the beginning, the middle and the end. Only with Paññā can fulfilment of the Pāramis be commenced, total sacrifice of one's body and life can be made and final extinction of suffering of samsāra can take place.

All the four Adhiṭṭhānas constantly promote welfare of oneself and of others and cause one to be highly revered and loved by everyone. Of these four, through Saccādhiṭṭhāna and Cāgadhiṭṭhana, the Bodhisatta as a layman benefits others with material gift; and through Upasamadhiṭṭhāna and Paññādhiṭṭhāna, the Bodhisatta as an ascetic benefits others with the gift of Dhamma.

How fulfilment of the four Adhiṭṭhānas takes place in the Bodhisatta's last existence when he becomes a Buddha

Preliminary note: In stating different views of various teachers in the treatises, they are mentioned as ekevāda or aññevāda when these teachers have qualifications worthy to be the author's teacher; when they have qualifications equal to his, the author describes their views as aparevāda; when they are inferior to him, he refers to theirs as kecivada.

[ 105 ] This traditional way of recording is handed down generation after generation: eke or aññe means those worthy to be the author's teachers; apare means those with qualifications equal to those of the author, and keci implies those inferior to him.

Eke vāda

As to how the fulfilment of the four Adhiṭṭhānas takes place in the Bodhisatta's last existence, eke teachers maintain that the four Adhiṭṭhānas are already fulfilled at the time when the Bodhisatta is conceived. (Just as the Bodhisatta's conception takes place in his last existence only when the Pāramīs are completely fulfiled, so also does it take place only when the four Adhiṭṭhānas reach complete fulfilment.)

Explanation given by these eke teachers: Having completely fulfilled the Paññādhiṭṭhāna at the time of descending into his mother's womb, while remaining there for ten months and when emerging from it, the Bodhisatta is bound to possess mindfulness and clear comprehension.

Ordinary worldings are not aware of their descending into their mother's womb; nor are they aware of remaining there and emerging from it at birth; the eighty Future Disciples are aware of descending into the mother's womb, but they are not aware of remaining there or of emerging from it; the two Future Chief Disciples and Future Pacceka Buddhas are aware of their descending into the mother's womb, and of remaining there, but not of emerging from it at birth. True, these Future Chief Disciples and Future Pacceka Buddhas, when the time draws near for their birth, are flung in a tumble by internal pressure of the womb towards external genital orifice as if plunged into a very deep chasm; then they undergo extreme suffering in emerging from the genital orifice just like the big elephant would if it were to push its way through a keyhole. Therefore these Future Chief Disciples and Future Pacceka Buddhas are unable to know that they are emerging from their mother's womb. In this way, one should have a deep sense of religious urgency by contemplating the extreme suffering of conception in the [ 106 ] mother's womb with the thought: "Even such personages who are accomplished in the Pāramīs are subjected to intense suffering on such an occasion!"

The Future Buddhas, however, are conscious of all the three events of descending into the mother's womb, of remaining there and of emerging from it at birth. The internal pressure is not capable of turning them topsy-turvy in the womb. On their birth, they always emerge from the mother's womb with both hands stretched out, eyes open, and standing firmly and straight. Apart from the Future Buddhas, there is no single being who is mindful of these three events. Therefore at the time of their taking conception in the mother's womb, and at the time of birth, the ten thousand world systems shook violently (Commentary to the Dīgha Nikāya, 3rd volume).

[ 107 ] Having completely fulfilled the Saccādhiṭṭhāna, as soon as he is born, the Bodhisatta goes forward taking seven steps towards the north, and surveying boldly all the directions, makes a truthful utterance three times without fear like a lion's roar:" I am the foremost in the world (aggo'hamasmi lokassa); I am the most eminent in the world (jettho'hamasmi lokassa); I am the most praise-worthy in the world (settho'ham-asmi lokassa)."

Having completely fulfilled the Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, when he sees the four signs of the old man, the sick man, the dead man and the ascetic, the arrogance due to youthfulness, healthiness, longevity and wealthiness ceases in the mental continuum of the Bodhisatta who has deep understanding of the four epitomes of Dhamma (Dhammuddesa), namely, how this body is oppressed by old age, ailments, death and how escape from servitude of craving for pleasures and wealth is impossible unless them is complete detachment from it (as given in the Ratthapāla Sutta)⁴⁴.

Having completely fulfilled the Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, the Bodhisatta leaves behind without any concern all the royal relatives and kinsmen; he also abandons the kingship he has been enjoying and the sovereignty of a Universal Monarch which is about to come within his grasp.

This is the interpretation by eke teachers. The Commentator Venerable Mahā Dhammapāla gives no comment on this eke vāda.

Keci vāda

According to keci teachers, the four Adhiṭṭhānas are completely fulfilled only on the occasion when Buddhahood is attained. Their interpretation is: When he becomes a Buddha (attaining Arahanttta Magga Ñāṇa and Omniscience) through the past accumulation of Saccādhiṭṭhāna in accordance with his vow, he penetrates the four Noble Truths; hence the Saccādhiṭṭhāna is fully accomplished then. Through the past accumulation of Cāgādhiṭṭhāna he eradicates all the defilements; hence Cagadhiṭṭhāna is fully accomplished then. Through the past accumulation of Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, he achieves the most sublime Peace of Nibbāna when he becomes a Buddha, hence Upasamādhiṭṭhāna is fully accomplished then. Through the past accumulation of Paññādhiṭṭhāna, he achieves the unobstructed knowledge of all there is to know (Anāvarana Nāna); hence Paññādhiṭṭhāna is fully accomplished then.

This is the interpretation by keci teachers on which the Commentator Venerable Mahā Dhammapāla remarks: "Their statement is imperfect because Abhisambhodhi which is Arahatta Magga Ñāṇa or Omniscience is purely Absolute Reality; because Upasamadhitthāna means extinction through non-arising of the suffering of saṃsāra or Complete Peace; and because this is attainable only on realization of Nibbāna (Parinibbāna)."

[ 108 ] Aññe vāda.

Aññe teachers, however, say that the four Adhiṭṭhānas are completely fulfilled on the occasion the discourse on the Wheel of Dhamma (Dhammacakka) is given (when the Buddha develops the Knowledge of Teaching, Desanā Ñāṇa.).

This is how aññe teachers explain their view: The mental continumn of the Buddha, who has in the past made an accumulation of Saccādhitthāna, becomes accomplished in it by teaching the Noble Truths in three modet⁴⁵ of saccāñāṇa, kiccañāna and katañāna with regard to each of the four Noble Truths. The mental continuum of the Buddha who has in the past made an accumulation of Cāgadhiṭṭhāna becomes accomplished in it by making the great offering of the True Dhamma. The mental continuum of the Buddha, who has in the past made an accumulation of Upasamādhiṭṭhāna becomes accomplished in it by having attained himself the Peace of Freedom from defilements and causing others to attain the same like himself. The mental continuum of the Buddha, who has in the past made an accumulation of Paññādhiṭṭhāna becomes accomplished in it by full comprehension of the propensities and latent tendencies of beings.

This is the interpretation by aññe teachers on which the Commentator Venerable Mahā Dhammapāla remarks: "The statement of aññe teachers is also imperfect because the four Adhiṭṭhānas become completely accomplished only when the duties of a Buddha (Buddha kicca) are over; with the teaching of Dhammacakka Discourse, the Buddha has just begun performing his duties; he has not yet finished them. Hence the statement of aññe teachers remains incomplete.

[ 109 ] Aparevāda.

Apare teachers maintain that the four Adhiṭṭhānas are completely fulfilled on the occasion when Nibbāna is fully realized (Parinibbāna).

This is how the apare teachers explain their view: Of the four aspects of Saccādhiṭṭhāna, Nibbāna as Paramattha Saccādhiṭṭhāna is paramount; its function is not yet complete by mere attainment of Arahatta Magga through extinction of defilements (Kilesa Parinibbāna).

Its function is complete only when existence comes to an end with extinction of aggregates (Khandha Parinibbāna). It is only then that Saccādhiṭṭhāna becomes perfect. At that time because all the four aggregates, namely, the aggregate of sense desire (kāmupadhi), the aggregate of body (khandhupadhi), the aggregate of defilements (kilesupadhi) and the aggregate of volitional activities (abhisaṅkhārupadhi) have been rejected, Cāgādhiṭṭhāna becomes perfect. Then because all the mental formations cease, Upasamādhiṭṭhāna becomes perfect. At that time too, because all the purpose of wisdom is achieved, Paññāddhiṭṭhāna becomes perfect. That is the view of apare teachers. Without making any criticism of their view, the Commentator Venerable Mahā Dhammapāla gives his own interpretation as a supplement to it: (a) Perfection of Saccadhitthāna is particularly evident at the time of (the Bodhisatta's) birth; (b) Perfection of Paññādhiṭṭhāna is particularly evident at the time of his Enlightenment; (c) Perfection of Cāgādhiṭṭhāna is particularly evident when he makes the great gift of Dhamma by delivering the Discourse on Dhammacakka; (d) Perfection of Upasamādhiṭṭhāna is particularly evident when he realizes Nibbāna.

To summarise the various views of different teachers.

(i) Eke teachers say that the four Adhiṭṭhānas become perfect on the first occasion when conception takes place in the last existence.

(ii) Keci teachers say that the four Adhiṭṭhānas become perfect on the second occasion when Enlightenment is attained.

[ 110 ] (iii) Aññe teachers say that the four Adhiṭṭhānas become perfect on the third occasion when the Discourse on Dhammacakka is delived.

(iv) Apare teachers say that the four Adhiṭṭhānas become perfect on the fourth occasion when Nibbāna is realized.

(v) Following the tradition of authors who express last in their works the view they endorse, the Venerable Mahā Dhammapāla mentions last the apare vāda because he approves of it and accepts it with a supplementary remark which is: "The four Adhiṭṭhānas become perfect only on the fourth occasion when Nibbāna is realized as stated by apare teachers. However it is particularly evident that Saccādhitthāna is perfect at the time of the first event; Paññādhitthāna, at the time of the second event; Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, at the time of the third event; and Upasamādhiṭṭhāna at the time of the fourth event."

Benefits of the Adhiṭṭhānas

Through Saccadhitthana, purification of morality is effected; through Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, purification of livelihoods; through Upasamādhiṭṭhana, purification of mind; and through Paññāhiṭṭhāna, purification of knowledge.

In addition, through Sacccādhiṭṭhāna (because he does not deviate from truth), he does not follow the wrong course of hatred; through Cāgāthiṭṭhāna (because he is not attached to sense objects), he does not follow the wrong course of greed; through Upasamādhṭṭhāna, (because he is faultless and) since there is nothing to be afraid of, he does not follow the wrong course of fear; and through Paññādhiṭṭhāna (because he sees things as they really are) he does not follow the wrong course of delusion.

Furthermore, through Saccādhiṭṭhāna, he can tolerate without anger inconveniences caused by cold, heat, hunger; by contact with gadflies, mosquitoes, flies, wind, sun, reptiles; annoying insults and abuses of others; and distressing ailments. Through Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, he makes use of the four requisities of robes, alms-food, dwelling [ 111 ] and medicine, without attachment arising from greed. Through Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, he avoids dangers of wild elephants, wild horses, wild cattle, wild dogs, etc., remaining absolutely calm. Through Paññādhitthāna, he dispels without delusion wrong thoughts of sense pleasure, ill-will and cruelty as well as demeritorious factors.

Through Saccādhiṭṭāna, he achieves happiness of renunciation; through Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, of solitude; through Upasamādhiṭṭāna, of peace; and through Paññāthiṭṭhāna, happiness associated with fourfold knowledges of the Path.

Through Saccādhiṭṭhāna, he achieves happiness of the First Jhāna; through Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, of the Second Jhāna; through Upasamādhiṭṭhāna, of the Third Jhāna; through Paññāṭṭhāna, of the Fourth Jhāna.

Thus it should be understood how all the Pāramīs are included in the four Adhiṭṭhānas accompanied by various attributes.

How all the Pāramīs are counted as two factors.

Just as all the Pāramīs are included in the four Adhiṭṭhānas, they are also counted as two factors, namely, Compassion (Karuṇā) and Wisdom (Paññā). True, it is only the virtues such as Dāna, etc., founded on Compassion and Wisdom which are the requisites for Perfect Self-Enlightenment resulting in attainment of Omniscience.

(This is the synopsis of the Pāramīs:)

What has been described in this chapter:

How the thirty Pāramīs are reduced to ten; how the ten Pāramīs are reduced to six: Dāna, Sīla, Khantī, Vriya, Jhāna and Paññā; then how these six Pāramīs are reduced to the four Adhiṭṭhānas; and finally, how all the Pāramīs are reduced to two factors: Compassion and Wisdom.

[ 112 ] 13. What are the factors for accomplishing the Paramīs?

To the question, "What are the factors for accomplishing the Pāramīs?" the answer is: They are:

(1) developing four kinds of bhāvanā.,
(2) reflecting upon what oppose the Pāramīs and dispelling them, and
(3) surrendering oneself to the Buddha.

In short, the means for accomplishing the Pāramīs are (a) extinction of self-love,and (b) development of love for other beings.

To elaborate:
(1) The four good means for accomplishing the Pāramīs are development and accumulation of all the requisites such as Pāramī, Cāga, Cariya, not omitting any of them with the sole aim of achieving Omniscience (Sabbasambhāra-bhāvanā); with high esteem and reverence (Sakkacca-bhāvanā); without interruption throughout all existence (Nirantara-bhāvanā); throughout the long duration without slacking before he becomes a Buddha (Cirakāla-bhāvanā).

(2) The Bodhisatta has to abandon before hand all his personal possession even before alms-seekers appear at his door with the determination: "Offer I will without wavering my life as well as the wealth and property that I possess if people come to ask for them; I will make use of only what remains after I have given?"

In this manner, he has made up his mind in advance to abandon whatever property he comes to possess. But there are four factors which hinder his giving them away(dāna vinibandha):

(a) not being accustomed in the past to practice of giving, (b) not having sufficient quantity of things in his possession, (c) things in his possession being too good to give away, and (d) worrying over the depletion of things in his possession.

[ 113 ] Of these four hindrances,

(a) when the Bodhisatta possesses things to give away and almseekers have arrived and yet the Bodhisatta's mind is not inclined to give, he realizes; "Surely, I was not accustomed to giving in the past; therefore the desire to give does not arise now in me in spite of such favourable circumstances". Then reflects,

Although the desire to give does not arise in me, I will make a gift so that I will get accustomed to giving and take delight in it. From now on, I will make generous offerings. Have I not already decided to give away all my belongings to those who seek alms?

Having reflected thus, he gives them away freely, gladly. On making such gifts the Bodhisatta removes the first hindrance of "not being accustomed in the past to practice of giving".

(b) When not having sufficient quantity of things in his possession the Bodhisatta reflects:

Because I have not praetised dāna in the past, I suffer from shortage of things. I should therefore make offering of whatever I have, whether they are few or inferior, even if it makes my life more difficult. With such gift, I will in future reach the height of Perfection of Generosity.

Having reflected thus he gives away freely, gladly whatever gift material he comes by. On making such gifts, the Bodhisatta removes the second hindrance of "not having sufficient quantity of things in his possession."

O good man, have you not aspired to the noblest, the most admirable, Supreme Enlightenment? To achieve the noblest, the most admirable, Supreme Enlightenment, it is only proper that you should make the noblest, the most admirable gift.

[ 114 ] Having reflected thus, he makes an offering of the most excellent, delightful object freely, gladly. On making such gifts, the Bodhisatta removes the third hindrance of "things in his possession being too good to give away."

(d) When the Bodhisatta sees the depletion of gift materials on giving them away, he reflects:

To be subjected to destruction and loss is the nature of wealth and possessions. It is because I did not perform in the past good deeds of dāna which never became depleted that I now experience deficiency of material gifts. I will make offering of whatever objects I come to possess whether few or abundant. With such gifts I will in future reach the height of the Perfection of Generosity. Having reflected thus, the Bodhisatta gives away whatever gift materials he comes by freely, gladly. On making such gifts, the Bodhisatta removes the fourth hindrance of "worrying over the depletion of things in his possession."

Removing of hindrances to dāna in this manner by reflecting upon them in whatever way is appropriate constitutes a good means of fulfilling the Perfection of Generosity. This same method applies to other Perfections such as Sīla, etc.

(3) In addition, the Bodhisatta surrenders himself in the first instance to the Buddha saying, "I dedicate this body of mine to the Buddha (imāham attabhāvaṃ Buddhānaṃ niyyādemi)". This selfsurrender made in advance to the Buddha is a good means of fulfilling all the Pāramīs.

True, the Bodhisatta who has already surrendered himself to the Buddha reflects, "I have given up this very body to the Buddha; come what may," when he encounters troubles which may endanger his body and life and which are difficult to endure, or when he meets with painful injury which is caused by beings and which may deprive him of his life, while striving to fulfil the Pāramīs during various existences. Having reflected thus, he remains absolutely unshaken, unmoved in the face of troubles that may harm even his life and fully determined to accumulate the merit of good deeds forming the Pāramīs.

[ 115 ] In this way, self-surrender made in advance to the Buddha is a good means of fulfilling all the Pāramīs.

Again to state briefly, the means for accomplishing the Pāramīs are

(a) extinction of self-love, and (b) development of love and compassion for other beings.

To elaborate:

By fully understanding the true nature of all the phenomena, the Bodhisatta who aspires after Omniscience remains untainted with craving, conceit and wrong view regarding them. By viewing his own body as mere aggregate of natural phenomena, self-adoration, self-esteem gets diminished, gets exhausted day by day.

By repeated development of Great Compassion, he looks upon all beings as his own children; his loving-kindness (affection) and his compassion (sympathy) for them grow and prosper more and more.

Therefore the Bodhisatta who has put away stinginess, etc., which are opposed to the Pāramīs after being momentarily free from greed, hatred, delusion in regard to himself and others, helps beings with four objects of support (saṅgaha vatthu), namely, giving (dāna), kindly speech (piyavācā), beneficial conduct (atthacariya) and a sense of equality (samānattata) which always accompany the four Adhitthānas; he then assists them with three 'conveyances' of practice (Sīla, Samādhi, Paññā) which lead to three kinds of Bodhi⁴⁶ causing those who have not entered the 'conveyances' to enter them or those who have done so to reach maturity therein.

True, the Bodhisatta's compassion and wisdom are adorned by the act of giving, one of the four objects of support. (Compassion and wisdom never manifest by themselves without giving; they both manifest simultaneously as acts of generosity are performed.) Giving [ 116 ] is adorned by kindly speech, for the Bodhisatta never scolds or yells while performing dāna to those who come for alms and to the attendants, but speaks only loveable, kind words. Kindly speech is adorned by the object of beneficial conduct, for the Bodhisatta speaks kind words not for mere superficial pleasantness but only with sincere, good intention to serve the interest of others. (Fulfilling the requisites of Enlightenment, namely, Pāramī, Cāga, Cariya, means practising for the welfare of beings; it is therefore beneficial conduct as one of the four objects of support). Beneficial conduct is adorned by sense of equality, for in fulfilling the requisites of Enlightenment, the Bodhisatta treats all beings as his equal under all circumstances, happy or painful.

When he becomes a Buddha, his function of taming and teaching is accomplished by benefitting all beings with these same four objects of support which have been developed to the utmost through fulfilment of the four Adhiṭṭhānas.

To elaborate:

For the Buddha, the act of giving is brought to completion by Cāgādhiṭṭhāna, kindly speech by Saccādhiṭṭhāna; beneficial conduct by Paññādhiṭṭhāna; and sense of equality by Upasamādhiṭṭhāna.

Concerning these four Adhiṭṭhānas and four objects of support the Commentary on the Cariyā Piṭaka mentions four verses eulogizing the attributes of the Buddha:

(1) Sacco cāgī upasanto paññavā anukampako sambhatasabbasambhāro kaṃ nāmattham na sādhaye.

The Buddha who has reached the height of accomplishment in the fourfold Saccādhṭṭhānas, who is fully accomplished in the Cāgādhiṭṭhānas, who has extinguished the fires of defilements, who is possessed of Omniscience and who looks after beings with Great Compassion, being equipped with all the requisites of Pāramīs, what is there that he cannot achieve?

[ 117 ] (ii) Mahakāruniko satthā hitesī ca upekkhako nirapekkho ca sabbattha aho acchariyo jino.

The Buddha, as the Teacher of men and Devas, being a person of Great Compassion, seeks the welfare of beings till their realization of Nibbāna. He remains equanimous when faced with the vicissitudes of life. Free from craving for and attachment to everything within his body or without, how wonderful is the Buddha who conquers the five maras⁴⁷.

(iii) Viratto sabbadhammesu sattesu ca upekkhako sadā sattahite yutto aho acchariyo jino. Though detached from all things and though keeping a balanced mind towards all beings, still he applies himself day and night to the welfare of beings. How wonderful is the Buddha who conquers the five maras!

(iv) Sabbadā sabbasattnaṃ hitāya ca sukhāya ca uyyutto akilāsū ca aho acchariyo jino.

Always working for the welfare and happiness of all beings,-men, Devas, Brahmas--and attending to the five duties of a Buddha day and night without ceasing, still he does not show any sign of fatigue or weariness. How wonderful is the Buddha who conquers the five vmaras!

(End of the section on factors for accomplishing the Pāramīs)

[ 118 ] 14. What is the period of time required for accomplishing the Pāramīs?

To the question, "What is the period of time required for accomplishing the Pāramīs?" the answer is:

The minimum period required for fulfilling the Pāramīs is four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons; the medium period, eight asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, and the maximum period, sixteen asankhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, after receiving the definite prophecy of Buddhahood. (Only after fulfilling the Pāramis for such durations can one become a Buddha.)

The three different durations relate to three different Future Buddhast⁴⁸, namely, Paññādhika Future Buddha, Saddhādhika Future Buddha and Viriyadhika Future Buddha. (A Paññādhika Future Buddha takes four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons; a Saddhadhika Future Buddha takes eight asankhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons and a Viriyadhika Future Buddha takes sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons to fulfil the Pāramīs completely.)

To the question, "All of them being Future Buddhas, why are there three different durations for fulfilment of the Pāramīs?" the answer is:

A Paññādhika Future Buddha is weak in faith but strong in wisdom: a Saddhādhika Future Buddha is strong in faith but medial in wisdom; a Viriyādhika Future Buddha is weak in wisdom. It is only through the power of wisdom that one attains Omniscience. When wisdom is strong, attainment of Omniscience is fast; when it is weak, the attainment is slow. This difference in the degree of strength of wisdom accounts for the difference in the duration required for fulfilment of the Pāramīs. (This is the answer provided by the Commentary.)

[ 119 ] Apare teachers say the difference between the three durations lies in the three degrees of energy, namely, strong, medial and weak.

Again, other teachers say it is due to the difference in degrees-strong, medial and weak--of maturity of the Perfections leading to emancipation (Vimutti paripācanīya dhammā).

Of these three views, that of the Commentator appears most appropriate when we consider the divisions of Bodhisattas into three types as follows:

Three types of Bodhisattas.

To elaborate: Even at the moment of receiving the prophecy as in the case of Sumedha the Hermit, the Bodhisattas are of three types: (i) Ugghaṭitaññū Bodhisattas, (ii) Vipañcitañña Bodhisattas, and (iii) Neyya Bodhisattas.

Of these three types Ugghaṭitaññu Bodhisattas are those who, if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple (Sāvaka Bodhi) in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to attain the Arahantship together with the six Higher Spiritual Powers (Abhiññās) and four kinds of Analytical Knowledge (Paṭisambhidā Ñāṇa) even before the end of the third line of a verse-sermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This Ugghaṭitaññu type of Bodhisattas is also called Paññādhika; with this type of Bodhisattas, wisdom is the strongest.

Vipañcitaññu Bodhisattas are those who, if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to attain Arahantship together with the six Higher Spiritual Powers and four kinds of Analytical Knowledge before the end of the fourth line of a versesermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This same Vipañcitaññū types of Bodhisattas is also called Saddhādhika; with this type of Bodhisattas, wisdom is medial.

[ 120 ] Neyya Bodhisattas are those who, if they wish to achieve Enlightenment of a Disciple in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to attain Arahantship together with six Higher Spiritual Powers and four kinds of Analytical Knowledge at the end of the whole verse-sermon of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This same Neyya type of Bodhisattas is also called Viriyādhika Bodhisatta; with this type of Bodhisattas wisdom is weakest.

All the three types of Bodhisattas make the mental resolution to attain Buddhahood for incalculable aeons before receiving the definite prophecy; however after receiving the definite prophecy, they fulfil the Pāramīs as stated before and attain Enlightenment according to the aforesaid time schedule.

Impossibility of earlier attainment of Buddhahood.

The paddy species which flowers, bears seeds and ripens only after a certain period of time even when with utmost effort of watering, etc., will not yield any crop at a date earlier than the natural period of flowering, bearing seeds and ripening. In the same way, all the various types of Bodhisattas by no means attain Buddhahood before they have completed the allotted time for fulfilment of the Pāramīs even if they strive daily with more and more energy to fulfil the Perfection (Pāramī), Sacrifices (Cāga) and Virtues through practice (Cariya), because their wisdom has not yet reached maturity, and their accumulation of Buddha-making factors is not complete yet.

Therefore it should be clearly understood that the Paramīs become fulfilled only in accordance with the aforementioned periods of time.

15. What is the advantages that accrue from the Pāramīs?

To the question, "What are the advantages that accrue from the Pāramīs?" the answer in brief is:

The advantages accruing from the Pāramīs are non-rebirth in Avici, etc.

[ 121 ] To state it in detail:

The advantages accruing from the Pāramīs are: non-rebirth in eighteen existences (Abhabbaṭṭhānas) such as Avīci, etc., (which will be dealt with at the end of this Chapter on Miscellany); ability to practise for the welfare of the sentient world; twenty marvels (as described in the Acchariya abbhuta Sutta, of the Suññata Vagga, Uparipaṇṇāsa, of the Majjhima Nikāya); fulfilment of all the Bodhisattas' wishes; and all other benefits such as proficiency in arts and crafts, etc., as shown in various Jātakas and Buddhavaṃsas and the like.

(The benefits concerning the fifteen pairs of Pāramīs mentioned in Section 12. "What is the synopsis of the Pāramīs?" are also to be taken as the advantages that accrue from the Pāramīs.)

Furthermore, the following are also the advantages that derive from the Pāramīs: From the time of aspiring to Buddhahood, the Bodhisatta, wishing the welfare of all beings, becomes like a father to them; possessing distinguished qualities, he is worthy of offerings, worthy of homage; he is like an excellent field for sowing seeds of merit in; he is dearly loved by Devas and men; his heart being filled with loving-kindness and compassion, he is not harmed by wild beasts such as lions, leopards, tigers, etc.; being a person possessed of extraordinary merit wherever he is reborn, he surpasses others in beauty, fame, happiness, strength and sovereignty; he is free from ailments; he has very pure faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom; he has few defilements; subsequently he is easy to admonish; he is patient; he takes delight in good deeds; he shows neither anger nor malice, nor does he denigrate; he is not given to rivalry, envy, jealousy, craftiness, hypocrisy; he is not haughty, nor arrogant; he is calm; he is mindful of meritoriousness; bearing with patience the torments of others, he does not cause suffering to them; wherever he resides, whether in a town, a village, or a region, the place is free from dangers and calamities; whenever he is born (as, for instance, in one existence before he was born as Prince Temi) through unfortunate circumstances in the planes of misery such as Ussada Niraya, unlike other inhabitants there, he is not distressed by intense suffering but develops even more and more sense of religious urgency.

[ 122 ] Furthermore, the accomplishment of life-span (āyu-sampadā), the accomplishment of physical form (rūpa-sampadā), the accomplishment of family (kula sampadā), the accomplishment of supremacy (issariya-sampadā); the acceptability of speech (adeyya vacanatā), the greatness of power (mahānubhāvatā) are also the advantages of the Pāramīs.

The accomplishment of life-span (āyu sampadā) is longevity in whatever existence he is reborn; with this accomplishment the Bodhisatta brings to conclusion whatever wholesome deed he has begun and develops greater meritoriousness.

The accomplishment of physical form (rūpa sampadā) is beauty of physical form. With this accomplishment the Bodhisatta inspires beings who appreciate and value beauty of physical form with confidence and esteem in him.

The accomplishment of family (kula sampadā) is rebirth in a high class family. With this accomplishment, he is approached even by those intoxicated with the vanity of their birth, etc.; he can therefore instruct them in order to cleanse them of their pride.

The accomplishment of supremacy (issariya-sampadā) is greatness of wealth, greatness of power and greatness of retinue. By means of this accomplishment, the Bodhisatta is able to confer benefits with four objects of support on those who deserve them or restrain righteously those who need to be restrained.

The acceptability of speech (adeyya vacanatā) is being a person whose words are trustworthy. With this accomplishment, the Bodhisatta is relied upon like a great pair of scales, a standard of impartiality whose authority cannot be disregarded.

The greatness of power (mahānubhāvatā) is the magnitude of power. With his accomplishment, he remains unvanquished by others while he overcomes them righteously.

In this manner, all the accomplishments such as longevity, etc., are the advantages which accrue from the Pāramīs. These in themselves are the cause for the growth of immeasurable requisites of merit and the means by which beings enter the three 'vehicles' and by which those who have done so reach maturity.

(These are the advantages accruing from the Pāramīs.)

[ 123 ] 16. What is the fruit of the Pāramīs?

To the question, "What is the fruit of the Pāramīs?" the answer briefly is:

The fruit of the Pāramīs is the Buddha's innumerable attributes headed by the Arahattamagga Ñāna and Omniscience which is Supreme Enlightenment; that is to say, the attainment of Buddhahood is the fruit of the Pāramīs.

To elaborate: It is the acquisition of the physical body (rūpakāya) adorned with many attributes such as the thirty two Characteristics of a Great Man, eighty minor marks (which will be given in detail in the Chronicle of Gotama Buddha), the aura emanating from. his body extending up to eighty cubits even in the total darkness of four conditions⁴⁹, the acquisitions of the Dhamma body (Dhamrna kāya) which is founded on the physical body and which is glorious with innumerable attributes such as the ten Powers⁵⁰ (Dasabala Ñāna), the fourfold valorous Wisdom⁵¹ (Catuvesārajja Ñāna); the sixfold unique Wisdom⁵², (Chaasādhārana Nana); and eighteen unique qualities of a Buddha. [ 124 ] (Āvenika-dhamma).⁵³

Furthermore, according to the following verse which is quoted by Commentators:

Buddhopi buddhassa bhaneyya vaṇṇam kappam pice aññam abhasamāno khiyetha kappo cira dīgham antare vaṇṇo na khiyetha tathāgatassa.

So numerous are the attributes of a Buddha that even another Buddha, devoting all the time to nothing else but dwelling on the virtues of that Buddha for the whole of his life, cannot finish describing them. All such attributes of a Buddha are the fruit of his Pāramīs.

At this point, in order to arouse devotional faith and appreciation of the innumerable, inestimable attributes of the Buddha, and to let the reader of this treatise develop merit which is conducive to wisdom, I shall conclude this Chapter on Miscellany by reproducing the three verses with their meanings, recited in honour of Anomadassi Buddha by Suruci the Hermit, later to become Venerable Sāriputta.

[ 125 ] (i) Sakkā samudde udakaṃ pametum āḷhakena vā na tveva tava sabbaññu ñānaṃ sakkā pametave

It may be possible to gauge the immense volume of water in the great ocean using some form of liquid measure; but, O Omniscient Buddha, no one whether a man or a Deva is able to fathom the depth of wisdom possessed by the Most Exalted One.

(ii) Dhāretuṃ pathaviṃ sakka thapetva tulamandale na tveva tava sabbaññu ñānam sakkā dharetave.

It may be possible to measure the total mass of the great earth by means of a weighing machine; but, O Omniscient Buddha, no one whether a man or a Deva is able to fathom the depth of wisdom possessed by the Most Exalted One.

(iii) Ākāso minitum sakkā, rajjuyā angulena vā,. na tveva tava sabbaññu, nānaṃ sakkā pametave.

It may be possible to measure the vast extense of the open space by means of a tape measure or a hand measure; but, O Omniscient Buddha, no one whether a man or a Deva is able to fathom the depth of wisdom possessed by the Most Exalted One.

Here ends the Chapter on Miscellany dealing with various meanings and facts concerning the Pāramīs.

1. Renunciation here refers not merely to giving up of material things but eradication of mental defilements.

2. There are three stages in the arising of defilements: (i) anusaya, the dormant stage where defilements remain at the base of mental continuum as a latent tedency not manifesting themselves as a mental property; (ii) pariyutthana, the stage where defilements come into existence form the latent stage manifesting themselves as a mental property at the mind's door. (iii) vitikkama, the stage where defilements become violent and uncontrollable, manifesting themselves in some unwholesome physical or verbal action. The observance of precepts inhabits the active expression of defilements (vitikkama) through body or speech. This is temporary putting away of defilement (tadanga-pahāna). The practice of concentration meditation (samathabhāvanā) especially at the stage of attainment of Jhāna prevents the violent arising of mental defilements at the mind's door (pariyutthāna). This is putting away of defilements to a distance for a considerable time (vikkhambhana-pahāna). Defilements are entirely eradicated right down to the level of dormanacy through Paññā, knowledge of the path of Fruition, leaving no trace of defilements in the mental continuum. This is complete eradication of defilements which are never to rise again (samuccheda-pahāna).

3. Exertion: paggaha, which means 'support','help', 'aid', 'exertion'; here exertion' may be the most appropriate.

4. Sāmañña and sabhāva, both of ultimate realities, are known as lakkhana; (i) sāmañna: features common to all, and (ii) sabhāva: features not shared by others but possessed by one and is thus unique (visesa).

5. Manifestation should be known as phala and upaṭṭhānākāra; (i) phala; the result of the ultimate realities and (ii) upaṭṭhānākāra; the way something manifests to the yogi. Whenever the yogi ponders deeply over a certain ultimate reality, what relates to the nature, function, cause, or effect of that reality appears in this mind. Thus something relating to any of these four and appearing in the yogis mind is called manifestation.

6. Nine causes of resentment: For details, see nine causes of anger, described under the Perfection of Forbearance in Volume One Part One, Anudipani Page 256.

7. Three rounds of rebirths: the kamma round (kamma vatta); the round of defilements (kilesa vatta); the round of results (vipaka vatta).

8. Pāramī pavicaya Ñāna. See Vol One, Part One, Chapter IV REFLECTIONS ON PERFECTIONS.

9. Kītaka: According to Tipitaka Pāḷi Myanmar Dictionary 'hopping insect, according to Sanskirit-English Dictionary by Monier Williams 'weapon' P.E.D quoting Peta-vatthu Commentary says; kitaka=(hot) copper plate.

10. Display of activity by delusion: sammoha vijambhita.

11. Sikkhā: the training which the Buddha's disciples have to undergo is of three kinds: training in Higher Morality, (adhisīla sikkhā); Higher Mentality (adhicitta sikkhā); and Higher Wisdom. (adhipaññā sikkhā) This threefold training forms the threefold divison, of the Nonle Path of Eight Constituents, namely, Sīla Samādhi, Pañña.

12. The four Foundations, Caturādhitthāna: the foundation of Insight (paññā); of Truth (sacca); of Liberality (dāna) and of Tranquility (upasama).

13. Four objects of support: catu sangaha vatthu: liberality (dāna), kindly speech (peyya vajja), a life of usefulness (attha cariya), and impartiality (samānattata).

14. Sāvaka Bodhi, Pacceka Bodhi: see Vol 1, Part 1, Chapter II RARE APPEREANCE OF A BUDDHA.

15. The remaining consequences are loss of wealth, loss of subordinates, loss of friends and rebirth in a woeful state. Sattaka Nipāta, Aṅguttara Nikāya.

16. 13 Dhutangas: are enumerated in the Visuddhimagga: (1) wearing patched-up robes, pamsukūlik'anga; (2) wearing only three robes, tecivarik'aṅga; (3) going for alms, pindapātik 'anga; (4) not omitting any house whilst going for arms, sapadānik 'anga; (5) eating at one sitting, ekāsanik 'anga; (6) eating only from the alms-bowl, pattapintik'anga; (7) refusing all other food, khalupaccha-bhattik'anga; (8) living in the forest, ārannik'anga; (9) living under a tree, rukkha-mūlik'anga; (10) living in the open air, abbokāsik'anga; (11) living in a cemetary, susānik'anga; (12) being satisfied with whatever dwelling, yathā-santhatik 'anga; (13) sleeping in sitting position (and never lying down), nesajjik'anga.

18. See The components of Energy.

19. The five masteries, vasibhāva, see Vol 1 Part 1, Anudīpānī Chapter VI Paramita (Prefections).

20. Two kinds of sensuality: sense objects (vatthu kāma); sense pleasures (kilesa kāma).

21. Obstacles in the path of spiritual progress: the obstacles are five in number: (a) kāmacchanda, all forms of craving and desire; (b) Vyapāda, ill-will (c) thina midda, sloth and torpor, (d) uddhacca-kukkucca, distraction and worry, and (e) vicikiccha, doubt or wavering of mind.

22. The Bodhisatta in one of his births was a brahmin magnate of Bāransai named Akitti who after giving away all his wealth, retired to a forest; there be continued to distribute his newly acquired possession to others even when had nothing to eat but kara leaves.

23. Five eyes: fivefold Eyes of Wisdom, which the Sub-Commentary explains as follows: (i) Buddha-cakkhu, the Buddha-Eye, complete intuition of another's inclinations, intentions, hopes, hankerings, will, dispositions, proclivities, moral state; (ii) Samanta-Cakkhu; the Eye of All-round Knowledge, the eye of a being perfected in wisdom; (iii) Dhamma-Cakkhu (or Ñāna-Cakkhu), the Eye of Truth, perception of the attaiment of the first three Maggas which lead to the fourth and final Magga, Arahantship; (iv) Dibba-Cakkhu: the Eye of Supernormal Power, the Deva-Eye of super sensuous perception, the "clear" sight of seer, all pervading and seeing all that proceeds in hidden worlds; and (v) Pasāda-Cakkhu, (or Mamsa-Cakkhu), the physical eye.

24. Queen Maddi: wife of Prince Vessantara, well known for his generosity as a Bodhisatta. See, Vol 1, Part 1 Chapter II RARE APPEREANCE OF ABUDDHA.

25. Four floods: Ohga: The four floods of desires for sensuality, existence, wrong views and ignorance.

26. Dhammārammana: According to A Manual of Abhidhammā by Narada Thera, "Dhammaramana includes all objects of consciousness. Dhamma embraces both mental and physical phenomena, pp 126, 128, 181. U Shwe Zan Aung's Compendium of Philosophy describes object of consciousness "as either object of sense or object of thought. ' It continues to mention that "the object of thought also consists of five sub-classes (i) citta (mind); (ii) cetasika (mental properties); (iii) pasada-rupa and sukhuma-rūpa (sensitive and subtle qualities of body); (iv) paññatti (name, idea, motion, concept); and (v) nibbāna and concludes "these are collectively termed dhammarammana" (pp 2-3).

27. Eight kinds of drink (pāna): drink made from mango, from rose-apple: from plantain, from banana, from honey-fruit, (Bassia latifolia); from grapes, from edible roots of water-lily; from the fruit of pharusaka.

28. Offering of food by tickets, salāka bhatta, see Vol 1, Part 1, Anudīpānī Chapter VI Paramita (Prefections).

29. Eleven fires of rāga, etc., fires of passion, hate, bewilderment, birth, ageing, death, grief, lamentation, pain, distress and despair.

30. Parivasa. See footnote no.5, vol. 1, Part. 1, Anudipani Chapter VI Paramita (Prefections).

31. Manatta. See How Sīla Pāramī is fulfilled.

32. See also Anudipani, Vol I, Part I.

33. The owner of his deeds; he is solely responsible for all his deeds, good or bad.

34. Eleven advantages of developing loving-kindness: see Anudipani Chapter VI Paramita (Prefections).

35. Eight qualities of voice: According to Mahāgovinda Sutta of Mahā Vagga, Digha Nikāya, the eight qualities of voice possessed by Sanankumara Brahma are (i) purity of enunciation; (ii) clearness, being easily understood; (iii) melodiousness; (iv) pleasantness; (v) being full and rounded; (vi) not being scattered and diffused; (vii) being deep and resonant; and (viii) not travelling beyond his audience; like the Brahma, Bodhisattas are also possessors of voice with these eight qualities.

36. Superstitious omens: dittha suta mutamangala. Tipitaka P.M.D describes it as the meaning of akotuhalamangala (mentioned in the Commentary of the Cariya Pitaka) which is explained as "belief held by the uninstructed in the auspiciousness of the five sense-objects when they happened to be seen, heard or touched under such and such curcumstaaces and conditions."

37. See an explanation of dhutanga practices.

38. The four traditions of Ariyas: Ariyavamsattaya, contentment with any kinds of robes alms-food dwelling and delight in meditation.

39. The four grounds of Buddhahood.

40. The four ways of gaining friendship, sangahavatthu; liberality (dāna); kindly speech (peyyavajja); beneficial action (atthacariya); treating others like into oneself (samanattatā).

41. Three forms of seclusion: kāya, citta, and upadhiviveka; kaya viveka means keeping aloof from companions; citta viveka means being void of sensuous thoughts; upadhi viveka means detachment from defilement.

42. The nine supramundance Dhammas: The Four Paths, the Four Fruitions and Nibbāna.

43. Foundation (adhitthana): We have translated previously adhiṭṭhana 'resolution' or 'determination', but these words are not applicable here and 'foundation' seems more appropriate in this context. P.E.D gives adhitthana also "in the sense of fixed, permanent abode" beside 'decision, resolution, self-determination, etc.'

44. Raṭṭhapāla Sutta: The eighty second Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya.

45. Three modes: saccañāna: the knowledge that it is the truth; kiccañāna: the knowledge that a certain function with regard to that truth has to be peformed; katañāṇa: the knowledge that the function with regard to that truth has been performed.

46. Three kinds of Bodhi, Vol I, Part I, Chapter II RARE APPEARANCE OF A BUDDHA.

47. Five māras: The five obstacles: (i) The Deva who challenged the Buddha for position of the seat of wisdom, surrounding him with a huge army of his followers (Devaputta-māra); the mental defilements (kilesa-māra); (iii) volitional activities which lead to rebirth (abhisankhāra-māra); (iv) the aggregates of nama and rūpa which materialize in all the existences before attainment of Nibbāna [ (khandha-māra) and (v) death (maccu-māra).]

48. Three different Future Buddhas: Vol I, Part I, Chapter II RARE APPEARANCE OF A BUDDHA.

49. Four conditions: at midnight, on new moon, amidst a thick forest and under an overcast sky without lightning.

50. Ten powers, Dasabala Ñāna, perfect comprehension in the ten Spheres of knowledge. See Vol I, Part I, Chapter II RARE APPEARANCE OF A BUDDHA.

51. The fourfold valorous Wisdom, Catu vesārajja Ñāṇa; see Vol I, Part I, Chapter IV REFLECTION ON PERFECTIONS.

52. The sixfold unique Wisdom: Cha-asādhārana Nāṇa; see Vol I, Part I, Chapter IV REFLECTION ON PERFECTIONS.

53. (i) having no hindrance with regard to knowledge of the past; (ii) having no hindrance with regard to knowledge of the present; (iii) having no hindrance with regard to knowledge of the future; (iv) being preceded by wisdom in all physical actions; ,(v) being preceded by wisdom in all verbal actions; (vi) being preceded by wisdom in all mental actions; (vii) having no falling off in intention; (viii) having no falling off in energy; (ix) having no falling off in concentration; (x) having no falling off in wisdom; (xi) having no falling off in teaching the Dhamma; (xii) having no falling off emancipation; (xiii) not indulging in joking and laughter; (xiv) not making blunders; (xv) having nothing which cannot be gauged by wisdom; (xvi) having nothing which needs to be attended in a hurry; (xvii) being never negligent; and (xviii) not undertaking anything without due reflection.

Volume 1 Part 2
PREFACE

This book is the translation of Volume One, Part Two of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas, the State Buddha Sāsana Council’s version, by the Most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw, Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa, Tipiṭakadhara, Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika, Agga Mahāpaṇḍita, Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru.

The Volume One, Part One of the treatise contains the story of the Hermit Sumedha together with Anudīpanī which deals with elaborate explanations of various doctrinal points. We brought out the first portion of this volume containing the story of the Hermit Sumedha on the Full-moon day of Tazaungmon, 1352 M.E. ( 1st November 1990 ) in time for the 79th birthday Veneration Ceremony of the Venerable Sayadaw. The second portion of the volume dealing with Anudīpanī was brought out on the auspicious day of the 80th birthday of the Venerable Sayadaw, the 4th waxing moon of Tazaungmon M.E. ( 10th November 1991 ).

We now bring out this book to honour the Most Venerable Sayadaw with the English rendering of the Volume One, Part Two of his work on the chronicles of Buddhas on the auspicious occasion of his 81st birthday, the 7th waxing moon of Tazaungmon 1354 M.E. ( 1st November 1992 ).

The book is made up of three chapters, namely, the seventh, eighth and ninth of the Volume One. The seventh chapter ( the first of this book ) furnishes miscellaneous notes on the ten Perfections as elaborated in the Commentary on the Cariya Piṭaka.

While following closely the arrangement of topics that appears in the Commentary, namely, 1. What are the Pāramīs ? 2. Why are they called Pāramīs? ..... 16. What is the fruit of Pāramīs ?, the Venerable Sayadaw has added his own interpretations and explanations quoting various works of purely Myanmar origin . Hence this chapter may even be regarded as a kind of Sub-Commentary on the Cariya Piṭaka by the Venerable Sayadaw. Serious students of Buddhism, imbued with sincere faith and devotion and practising Vipassanā Meditation will, we hope, find this Chapter of great interest.

The eighth chapter, the second of this book, is a short one dealing only with eighteen existences in which Bodhisattas who have received the definite prophecy are not reborn ( Abhabbaṭṭhānas ). The author has given much enlightening notes on such words as hermaphrodite ( ubhatobyañjanaka ) and eunuch ( paṇḍaka ), etc., With a description of each of their various types, he also provides a discussion on their differences.

The ninth chapter, ( the third of this book ) is entitled “ The Chronicle of Twenty-Four Buddhas ” starting with Buddha Dīpaṅkara and ending with Buddha Kassapa. The three Buddhas known as Taṇhaṅkara, Saranaṅkara and Medhaṅkara, Buddha Dīpaṅkara’s predecessors, are excluded from the list for the obvious reason that they were not the Buddhas who prophesied Buddhahood of our Buddha Gotama. The prophecy was uttered by Buddha Dīpaṅkara and successive Buddhas.

In describing the life-history of each Buddha, the events narrated in sequence are his birth, household life, renunciation, Enlightenment or attainment of Buddhahood, three occasions of teaching, disciples meeting(s) , prophecy made to future Buddha Gotama and construction of a cetiya for enshrinement of his relics. In the chronicle of most Buddhas saṃvega to be experienced by readers is also included. This pattern which is monotonous if not tedious is naturally based more or less on that adopted in the Buddhavaṃsa, the original work in Pāḷi.

The particulars of each Buddha may also prove monotonous; they include the names of his birthplace, parents, Chief Disciples and other close ones, Bodhi Tree, wife and son. Also given are the aeons to which he belonged, the measurement of his height and the length of his life-span.

We notice that the numbers connected with the aeons, life spans and also the height of the Buddhas are very large. But we are duty bound to be faithful to the author’s work and cannot but translate such portions as well. The author himself has made a sincere rendering into Myanmar of what comes in the Pāḷi works concerning the lives of those Buddhas in his compilation. All we have left out from our translation are some philological passages which are meant only for Myanmar readers.

Formidable problems and pitfalls that await anyone translating from one language to another are too well known to mention; while we can follow the examples of publications of the Pāḷi Text Society and works of learned scholars with regard to Pāḷi words and usages, there are only a few works on Buddhism in Myanmar ( such as those by Ledi Sayadaw ) translated into English which would give us guidance.

Eager as we are to reproduce the style, the language and the embellishments with which the great Sayadaw makes his compilations and expositions, we find it sometimes too difficult to put them into English without losing the beauty of the original or without diminishing the faith and devotional fervour which it inspires.

We are especially handicapped in handling Myanmar idioms, metaphors, similes and the like the knoweledge for which is taken for granted to be possessed by the Myanmar reader. In rendering them into English we have to sacrifice sometimes the simplicity of the English language and its structure. Finally wherever Nibbāna is mentioned “ as a secure city where those who have passed into it live happily " it should be remembered that it is just a figurative usage. Passing into Nibbāna is not going into the city of Nibbāna. There is no such thing as the city of Nibbāna. A reference is here invited to page 273 of Volume One, Part One, Anudīpanī, where it is explained, " Nibbāna is the Ultimate Reality which is the object of the Path and Fruition. Parinibbāna is complete cessation of the material and mental aggregates which will never come into being again "

Our ardent hope is to have our labours serve as a pioneer work to be improved upon by more brilliant brains to come.

We are indebted to U Kyaw Hlaing, Archivist of the Tipiṭaka Nikāya Monastery, Yangon, for his valuable suggestions and other forms of assistance, especially by providing us with pertinent references from Pāḷi sources. He has also kindly prepared the indices and appendix.

Our thanks are also due to U Aung Mon of the publication Committe, Tipiṭaka Nikāya Upaṭṭhāka Organization, for supervising the publication of the book.

May the Venerable Sayadaw be blessed with long life and good health so that he may continue on rendering invaluable services for the welfare and happiness of all mankind.

U Ko Lay U Tin Lwin

Yangon

Dated, The 7th waxing moon of Tazaungmon, 1354, M.E.

The 1st November 1992.

VOLUME_1
PART_2
CHAPTER_8

spage-126 spage-129

EIGHTEEN ABHABBATTHĀNAS.

[ 126 ] Eighteen existences in which Bodhisattas who have received the definite prophecy are not reborn. Those Bodhisattas who like Sumedha the Hermit are endowed with eight qualities¹ The eighteen existences are:
(1) the existence of a blind since birth,
(2) that of a deaf since birth,
(3) that of a lunatic,
(4) that of a dumb,
(5) that of a cripple,
(6) that of a barbarian,
(7) that in the womb of a female slave,
(8) that of one with perpetual wrong belief,
(9) that of one whose sex changes (from male to female)
(10) that of one who commits the five severest crimes²,
(11) that of a leper,
(12) that of an animal smaller than a quail (or a warbrer), and
(13) that of a khuppipāsika peta, nijjhāmatanhika peta and kāla-kañcika asura. (Khuppipāsika peta is an everhungry ghost, for he hardly has a chance to feed; nijjhāmatanhika peta is another one who is always feeling hot, for he is always on fire.These are the petas who in their previous lives were monks, the kind that the Venerable Moggalāna encountered on Mount Gijjhakūta. Kālakañcika was the name of an [ 127 ] Asura whose body was three gāvutas³ in size; but as he is of scanty flesh and blood his complexion is like the colour of a withered leaf. His eyes, lying on his head, protrude like those of a lobster. Since the mouth is the size of the eye of a needle, also lying on the head, he has to bend forward to pick up the food if he finds it at all.);
(14) that in Avīci and Lokantarika, (the latter being the space at the meeting of three world-systems; it is the space where evil doers suffer for their misdeeds; and such a place for intense suffering is called Lokantarika Hell);
(15) that of Māra in a celesitial abode of sensual pleasures;
(16) that in Asaññasatta Brahma and Suddhāvāsa Brahma abodes;
(17) that in Arūpa Brahma abodes, and
(18) that in another world-system.

[Here the author gives a detailed explanation of 'a quail (or a warlber)' mentioned in the twelfth item of the list. The author's elucidations quoting various authorities including two Jātaka stories are mainly meant for the benefit of Myanmar scholars and are left out from the translations.]

In listing the abhabbaṭṭhārnas the Aṭṭhasālini Commentary and Buddhavaṃsa Commentary on the one hand and the Sutta Nipāta Commentary on the other agree on some points and disagree on others· Of the eighteen existences given in the Sutta Nipāta Commentary, the following eight are missing in the Aṭṭhasalini Commentary:

(1) the existence of a lunatic,
(2) that of a cripple,
(3) that of a barbarian,
(4) that of one whose sex changes (from male to female),
(5) that in the womb of a female slave,
(6) that of a leper,
(7) that of Māra, and
(8) that in another world-system.

[ 128 ] The Atthasālinī Commentary does not give the exact number of these existenes, and those listed in it but ommitted in the Sutta Nipāta Commentary are:

(1) that of a woman,
(2) that of a hermaphrodite, and
(3) that of a eunuch.

(The list in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary is the same as that in the Aṭṭrhasālini Commentary.) Of these three existences, that of a woman is easily understood.

The original Pāḷi word meaning a 'hermaphrodite' is ubhatovyañjanaka. (Ubhato means "because of the two past kammas, one causing female sex and the other, male; vyañjanaka means "one who has two different kinds of genital organs.") A hermaphrodite is of two kinds: a female hermaphrodite, and a male one.

In a female hermaphrodite the female sex characteristics appear dominant while the male ones, subordinate at normal times; in a male hermaphrodite the male sex characteristics appear conspicuously while the female ones, subordinate at normal times.

When a woman with both sexes desires to have intercourse taking the role of a man with another woman, her female organ disappears and male organ appears. When a man with both sexes desires to have copulation with another man, his male organ disappears and female organ manifests itself.

The female hermaphrodite can conceive a child; she can also make another woman conceive. The male hermaphrodite cannot conceive, but he can impregnate a woman. This is the difference between the two. (Vinaya Mahāvagga Commentary.)

The Pāḷi term for a eunuch is paṇḍaka (meaning a person with ineffective genitals). Despite his being a male, he is different from other men in the sense that he lacks effectiveness in coital acts. There are five kinds of eunuch:

[ 129 ] 1. āsitta-paṇḍaka: one whose sexual urge is gratified by sucking another man's penis or taking that man's semen with his mouth;

2. ussuyya-paṇḍaka: one whose sexual urge is gratified by stealthily watching the act of others' lovemaking and by feeling envious of them;

3. opakkamika-paṇḍaka: one who is castrated (like a eunuch incharge of women in a harem);

4. pakkha-paṇḍaka: one who has sexual urge during the dark fortnight of the lunar month and who is sexually calm during the bright fortnight; and

5. napumsaka-paṇḍaka: one who has been born without sexual characteristics. (Such a one is without the sex decad⁴ in his make up since birth and remains without sex characteristics male or female. One is therefore neither a man nor a woman.) Thus, five kinds of paṇḍaka should be understood. (Vinaya Mahavagga Commentary.)

End of the eighteen abhabbaṭṭhānas.

1. See Chapter II "Rare appearenee of Buddha", Vol I, Part I.

2. Five severest crimes: panca anantariya kamma: matricide, patricide, killing of an Arahant, shedding the blood of a Buddha, and causing schism of the Saṃgha.

3. Gāvuta: a little less than two miles according to P.E.D.

4. Sex dercad: The four elements of earth, water, temperature and wind plus colour, smell, taste, nutrition, life principle and male or female formation constituting a cell (kalāpa) at the time of conception.

VOLUME_1
PART_2
CHAPTER_9

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THE CHRONICLE OF TWENTY-FOUR BUDDHAS.
BUDDHAVAṂSA. (1 to 8)

1. DĪPANKARA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

[ 130 ] (The author discusses briefly the Myanma word Buddhavaṅ derived from the Pāḷi Buddhavaṃsa. Then he goes on to say as follows:) The definition of Buddhavaṃsa is this: Ito heṭṭhā kappasatasahassādhikesu catūsu asankhyeyyesu uppannānam paṇcavisatiyā Buddhānam uppannakappādi paricchedavasena paveniviṭṭhārakathā Buddhavamso nāma.

From this definition the meaning of Buddhavaṃsa should be understood as "a description and exposition of the lineage of the twenty-five Buddhas, who had come into being over the past four asaṅkheyya and one hundred thousand aeons, with their thirty-two particulars such as the aeons concerned, their names, clans, families, etc., is Buddhavaṃsa"

Though the chronicle of all these Buddhas with their particulars such as the aeons, etc., is called Buddhavaṃsa, when each individual of them is spoken of, the same term Buddhavaṃsa is applicable to the life-story of each Buddha. (For example) though the word Saṃgha is a term for the whole Order of Noble Ones, each and every one of them can also be called Saṃgha.

Therefore it should be understood that in this section called Dipaṅkara Buddhavaṃsa, the life story (with the aeon to which he belonged, etc.) of Buddha Dīpaṅkara will be dealt with.

In the Buddhavaṃsa Text, the account of Buddha Dīpaṅkara does not contain in detail the events that took place at the time of his conception and birth. Only this much is mentioned about him in the Sumedhakathā, Story of Sumedhā.

Evam me siddhipattassa vasibhutassa sasane
Dipankaro nāma jino uppajji lokanāyako.
Uppajjante ca jāyante bujjhante dhammadesane
caturo nimitte nāddasim jhānarati samappito.

[ 131 ] [The Bodhisatta Sumredhā the Hermit says:] "When I have thus become accomplished in asceticism [Jhānas and Abhiññas] there appeared Buddha Dipaṅkarā, Lord of the whole world.

Being totally absorbed in the bliss of Jhāna, I have not seen the wondrous phenomena that took place on the four occasions of his conception, birth, Enlightenment and delivery of the First Sermon.

Thus the Buddhavaṃsa Text refers only briefly to the appearance of Buddha Dipaṅkarā in the story of Sumedā. It is only in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary that we find the full story of Buddha Dipaṅkarā with details of events in serial order starting from the episode of his rebirth in the abode of Tusita Gods.

Four asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons before the present Bhadda Kappā¹ there appeared in one Saramaṇda Kappā the three Buddhas--Tanhaṇkarā; Medhaṅkarā and Saraṇaṅkarā--one after another. After that came an Antara Kappa, an aeon of decrease with the human life-span of one hundred thousand years. Then in the city of Rammāvati reigned King Sudeva. During his reign Buddhisatta Dipaṅkara was enjoying life in the celestial abode of Tusita after his fulfilment of the Perfections. Deities from the ten-thousand world-system approached him with a request, in compliance with which the Bodhisatta took conception in the womb of Sumedhā, Queen of Sudeva, on the full-moon day of Āsaḷha [June-July] when the moon was in conjunction with the planet of Uttarāsalha. Having been tended upon by a great retinue and after ten full months the Bodhisatta was born.

At the moments of his conception and birth there appeared thirty-two portentous phenomena such as trembling of the thousand world systems, etc.

(These thirty-two phenomena usually take place on the four occasions of every Bodhisatta's conception, birth, Enlightenment and teaching of the First Sermon. These phenomena common to all [ 132 ] Bodhisattas will be described when we come to the Chronicle of Buddha Gotama. In the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary, however, these thirty-two phenomena and their subsequent happenings are elaborately told in the chapter on Bodhisatta Dīpaṅkarā's conception.)

Thereafter Prince Dīpaṅkarā was brought up in luxury, and when he came of age, he ascended the throne.

As a king he lived in three golden palaces--Haṃsa Palace (Haṃsa Pāsāda), Heron Palace (Koñca Pāsāda) and Peacock Palace (Mayūa Pāsāda)--by rotation for ten thousand years. There were about three hundred thousand well ornamented female attendants. His Chief Consort was Padumā and his son Prince Usabhakkhandha.

Enjoying a divine-like kingly life in the three palaces, Prince Dipaṅkarā went out to the royal garden to enjoy himself; on the way saw an old man, a sick man and a dead man who were Deva messengers. Overcome by religious emotion (saṃvega) he returned from the garden and entered the city. When he wanted to go out again to the garden for the fourth time, he summoned his elephantkeeper and said: "Today I will visit the royal garden for sightseeing. Get the elephants ready." "Very well, Your Majesty," said the royal elephant-keeper and had eighty-four thousand elephants prepared. Dressed in a costume offered by Deva Vissakamma and accompanied by eighty-four thousand elephants and a large army of troops, he entered the garden, riding the state elephant. Having descended from the elephant's back he roamed sightseeing all over the garden, sat on a cool and pleasant stone slab and aspired to go forth from the world. Then Mahā Brahmā, an Arahant of Suddhāvāsa abode, brought the eight requisites and appeared at a place where he could be seen. Seeing the eight requisites the Bodhisatta asked what they were; when told that they were the paraphernalia of a monk, he took off his royal attire and handed it over to the royal treasurer, cut of his hair with his sword and threw it up into the sky.

Then Sakka, king of Devas took the hair knot in a golden receptacle and enshrined it in a cetiya called Makuṭa; it is three yojanās in size and built of emeral stones on Mount Meru.

The Bodhisatta then put on the robes offered by the Brahmā and [ 133 ] threw up into the sky his old raiment which was received and enshrined by the Bramhā in a cetiya (called Dussa), twelve yojanās in size, in the Suddhāvāsa Brahmā abode.

A crore of people who had heard of the prince's donning of the robe followed his example and became monks themselves.

Together with these monks who had thus followed in his footsteps, Bodhisatta Dipaṅkarā practised austerity called dukkaracariyā. On the full-moon day of Vesākha on which he was to become a Buddha. He entered a town for alms-food. It was the day that townsfolk happened to be making pure milk-food for propitiating gods; nevertheless, the food was offered to the Bodhisatta and his one crore of followers.

Having taken the milk-food, the Bodhisatta spent the daytime in sala grove of the neighbourhood and in the evening, leaving behind all his followers, headed alone for the great Bodhi Tree.

Enlightenment and Teaching of the Dhammacakka Discourse.

On the way the Bodhisatta accepted eight handfuls of grass from an heretic, Sunanda by name, and no sooner had he spread out the grass at the foot of the Bodhi tree than the Aparājita Pallanka, "Unconquered Seat," fifty-three cubits in size, appeared.

(With regard to the size of the seat which was fifty-three cubits, some say the size means the height and others say it means the breadth as found in the Sub-Commentaties of the Inwa Period. These commentarial statements in detail will be dealt with when we come to the story of Buddha Gotama.)

Sitting cross-legged on the "Unconquered Seat", under the Bodhi tree (pipphala) the Bodhisatta put forth energy of four [ 134 ] levels² and overcame Mara and his army; he gained Pubbenivāsa Nāṇa (Wisdom that enables one to know the series of previous existences) in the first watch of the night; Dibbacakkhu Ñāna (Wisdom that helps one see even the most subtle form from a far distance like a divine eye) in the middle watch; and contemplated in the last watch the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada, "Dependent Origination", in the forward order, revolving of the wheel of samsarā and in the backward order, stopping of it; thereafter he entered upon the Fourth Jhāna through Ānāpāna Meditation; emerging from it and reflecting on the five aggregates, he discerned the fifty characteristics concerning rise and fall of these aggregates and developed Vipassana Insight, up to the stage of Gotrabhū Ñāna³. As soon as the sun rose, this Vipassanā development led to the penetration of the Path and Fruition of Arahantship, of all the attributes of a Buddha and to the incomparable Buddhahood which is supreme in the three worlds.

After attaining Buddhahood the Buddha passed seven days at each of the seven sites around the Bodhi Tree enjoying the bliss of Fruition (Phala-samāpatti). Having granted the Brahma's request for his teaching, the Buddha delivered the First Sermon, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, at Sunandārama and one hundred crores of humans, Devas and Brahmas realized the Four Truths.

At the time of his Enlightenment and that of his teaching the Dhammacakkappavatta Sutta, thirty-two portentous phenomena occurred.

These phenomena (on the four occasions) when Bodhisatta Dipaṅkarā was conceived, born, attained Buddhahood and taught the First Sermon occured unknown or unseen by Sumedhā the Hermit as he was absorbed in the bliss of Jhānas. (This has been stated above.)

[ 135 ] The Buddha's journey.

After teaching the First Sermon, Buddha Dīpaṅkarā set out on a journey for the benefit of humans, Devas and Brahmas; while staying at Sudassana Monastery in Rammavati at the invitation of the citizens, the Buddha went out to accept the alms-food offered by them; while he was partaking of the food them took place a violent earthquake as a result of Sumedha's contemplation of the Perfections; the people present on that occasion were frightened and asked the Buddha about the cause of the earthquake; on hearing from the Buddha that there was nothing to fear as the cause was Sumedha's contemplation of the Paramīs they visited and acclaimed him, who thereafter entered the forest. All this has been told in the story of Sumedha. What remains to be told is the following:

When the citizens of Rammavati had finished their offering of alms-food to Buddha Dipaṅkarā and his four hundred thousand bhikkhus, they paid obeisance to the Buddha with flowers, scents, etc., and assembled to listen to his sermon.

Dipaṅkarā Buddha then addressed the assembly:
1. Dānaṃ nāma sukhādīnaṃ nidānam paramaṃ mataṃ
dibbānaṃ, pana bhogānaṃ patiṭṭhāti pavuccātī.

Dāna should be understood as the noble cause of human, divine and Nibbanic happiness; it is said to be the basis of divine enjoyments.

Beginning with these words the pleasant talk on the practice of dāna (Dānakathā) was given.

2. Sīlam nām etaṃ idhaloka-paraloka sampattīaṃ mūlaṃ.

Sīla means the root of various forms of prosperty in this life and the next.
In this and many other ways the talk on morality (Sīlakathā) was given in detail.

[ 136 ] 3. Next, Buddha Dīpaṅkarā gave a talk on divine abodes (Saggakathā) to explain as to which sīla leads to which divine happiness. "This divine abode is desirable, pleasant and delightful, and indeed happy. This abode provides constant merriment and gaiety. Catumahārājika Devas enjoy celestial happiness for nine million years in terms of human reckoning". In this way the benefit of heavenly attainment was taught.

4. After persuading, convincing and inspiring the people with this teaching so that they might be inclined to perform Dāna and Sīla, the Buddha proceeded to teach that even such heavenly bliss was not permanent and that one should not crave it very passionately. In this way the Buddha pointed out the disadvantages, unworthiness and foulness of sensual pleasures and also the advantages of emancipation from them; he ended his discourse with a talk on Deathless Nibbāna.

With this discourse given to the people the Buddha established some of them in the Three Refuges, some in the Five Precepts, some in the Sotāpatti-phala (Fruition of the 'Stream-Winner'), in the Sakadāgāmiphala (Fruition of the 'once Returner') in the Anāgāmiphala (Frution of the non-Returner). Some in the Arahatta-phala (Frution of Arahantship). Some in the threefold knowledge, in the Sixfold Higher Knowledge, or in the eight attainments⁴; the Buddha then left the city of Rammavati and entered Sudassana Monastery.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching.
(Dhammābhisamaya)

Having spent forty-nine days in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree after his Enlightenment, Buddha Dipaṅkarā delivered the First Sermon of Dhammacakka at Sunandārāma at the request of Mahā Brahma and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality to one hundred crores of Devas and men.

(This was the first 1Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 137 ] Next, knowing that his son Prince Usabhakkhandha had become intellectually mature, Buddha Dipaṅkarā gave a sermon and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality, to ninety crores of Devas and men headed by the prince (just like our Buddha taught his son Rāhulā the Cūla Rāhulovāda Sutta that led him to Fruition of Arahantship).

(This is the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Finally, after defeating the heretics near the sirīsa tree at the city-gate of Rammavati and displaying the Twin Miracle of water and fire the Buddha taught the Abhidhammā, sitting on the stone slab of Paṇḍukambala at the foot of pārichattaka tree in Tāvatimsa Abode, and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality, to ninety crores of Devas and men headed by the Deva who in his previous existence had been the Buddha's mother Sumedhā Devi.

(This is the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting. (sannipāta)

There were three occasions of meeting of Buddha Dīpaṅkarā's Disciples, one of them being Sunandārama where Arahants numbering about one hundred thousand crores from all regions specially met for the first time.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

Next, the Disciples' meeting took place on Mount Nāradakūḍa. Once while wandering from place to place with four hundred thousand bhikkhus, Buddha Dīpaṅkara arrived at the delightful Mount Nāradakūḍa which was full of marvellous features.

The mountain was occupied by a divine yakkha named Naradeva and people brought annually even human beings as sacrificial offering in this honour.

[ 138 ] Seeing that the people were endowed with the merits of their past deeds to rely upon, the Buddha ascended the mountain alone leaving behind his bhikkhus. Thereupon the yakkha became furious and caused the trembling of the mountain to scare the Buddha away. On seeing the Buddha serene and undisturbed although he had used all his might to frighten the Buddha, it occurred to him thus: "This great monk is indeed wonderful! Powerful indeed is he! The evil consequences of what I have done will come back to me. There is no refuge for me other than this great monk. Like a man who slips and falls onto the ground has to rely on the same ground to get up, I will now take refuge in this very monk."

With this thought he bowed before the Buddha touching with his head the Buddha's feet, the soles of which were adorned with one hundred and eight signs; he also begged the Buddha's pardon and took refuge in him. Then the Buddha gave him Dānakathā, Sīlakathā, etc., in serial order at the end of which Naradeva and his retinue of ten thousand yakkhas were established in Sotāpattiphala.

On the day Naradeva thus became a Sotāpanna, people from all over Jambūdīpa brought a man from each village to make sacrificial offering to the yakkha. They also brought with them large quantities of sesamum, rice, beans of various kinds, butter, ghee, honey, molasses, etc., Naradeva handed back all these food-stuffs to the people and entrusted the men, originally meant for sacrifice, to the Buddha.

Then the Buddha ordained these men by the "Ehi bhikkhu" formula and helped them all achieve Arahantship within seven days: on the full-moon day of Magha (January-February), staying in the middle of one hundred crores of Arahants, the Buddha gave instructions of Pātimokkha at the Disciples' meeting of four features.

An "Ehi bhikkhu" monk does not need to seek the bowl, robes, etc., to become a recluse; on being invited by the Buddha "Come, O monk", his appearance of a lay man vanishes, and he assumnes the appearance of a monk of sixty years' standing in the Order.

[ 139 ] The four futures of a Disciples' meeting are:
(1) all participants are "Ehi bhikkhu" monks;
(2) all participants are winners of Chalabhiññā (Sixfold Higher Knowledge);
(3) all participants come together without being summoned by the Buddha, and
(4) the congregation takes place on the full moon of the month, the fifteenth day Uposatha.

The above-mentioned story of the divine yakkha Naradeva comes from the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary.

In the Buddhavaṃsa Text, however, just this simple narration is given: "Again, when Buddha Dīpaṅkarā had gone into quietude on the top of Nārada Mountain, there gathered one hundred crores of Arahants who were free from defilements."

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Once Buddha Dīpaṅkarā observed vassa (rains retreat) on Mount Sudassana. When the vassa was over, people of Jambūdīpa came to the mountain to celebrate their annual mountain-top festival. They then happened to encounter the Buddha, listened to his sermon and, were so delighted with it that they became monks. When the Buddha taught them again on the Mahā Pavāranā Day (the full moon of Assayuja (September-October) the newcomers won Arahantship through the stages of Vipassanā Insight and of the Path as a result of their contemplation of conditioned things in the three planes of existence. The Buddha held Pavāranā ceremony⁵ with ninety thousand crores of Arahants.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 140 ] The ordinary sermons given by Buddha Dīpaṅkarā led to realization of the Four Noble Truths (attainment of Liberation) by thousands of beings, by countless individuals.

At that time, the thoroughly purified Teaching of the Buddha spread far and wide; it was understood by innumerable beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas; it was full and complete with exhortation on noble Sīla and such virtues.

Buddha Dīpaṅkarā, the Knower of the Three Realms, was always attended upon by four hundred thousand Arahant-Disciples, who have immensely powerful with the sixfold Abhiññā.

During the Dispensation of Buddha Dīpaṅkarā, those who died as learners (sekkhas) while trying for Arahantship in vain become the scorn of all.

The teaching of Buddha Dīpaṅkarā spread throughout the whole world and remained glorious for ever with Arahants who had extirpated their foe, namely defilements, and who were not disturbed by various sense-objects and thus free of impurities and āsavas.

Particulars of Buddha Dīpaṅkarā.

Buddha Dīpaṅkarā's birth place was the city of Rammavati.

His father was King Sudeva and his mother Queen Sumedhā.

His two Chief Disciples were Sumaṅgala Thera and Tissa Thera.

His attendant was Sāgata Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Nandā Therī and Sunandā Therī. His Bodhi Tree was a pipphala tree.

His male supporters were Tapussa and Bhallika. His female supporters were SirÛmā and Sonā.

His height was eighty cubits. He was a splendour like a pillar of blazing light and a great sala tree in full bloom.

[ 141 ] (The advantage of giving these particulars is this: Had they not been given, he might have been mistaken for a Deva, Māra, a demon, or a Brahma. One could think, it is not strange at all that the wonderful events should occur to such a divine being. This would have led to the wrong notion that it was not worthwhile to listen to his Teaching. Then there would have been no possibility of realization of the Truth (attainment of Liberation). On the other hand, the particulars would give rise to the right belief that "Powerful thus is indeed a human being." With this belief beings would listen to his Teaching and could understand the Truth (or could attain Liberation). Hence such details.)

Buddha Dīpaṅkarā's rays spread by themselves (i.e. without his exercising of power) to all the directions reaching twelve yojanās. His life-span was one hundred thousand years.

(This much is given in the Pāḷi Text.)

There are also some more particulars in the Commentaries which are not contained in the Text but which, the Commentaries state, much be told.

While leading a lay man's life, Buddha Dīpaṅkarā had three palaces: Hamsa, Koñca, and Mayūra.

He had three hundred thousand female attendants. His Chief Consort was Padumā Devī, his son Usabhakkhandha. The duration of his reign was ten thousand years.

When he renounced the world he went forth on an elephant. When he became Buddha he lived at Nandārāma (Nanda Park).

Living throughout such a long period, Buddha Dīpaṅkarā saved large numbers of beings (from suffering).

Having made the three divisions of the True Dhamma such as Learning (Pariyatti), Practice (Patipatti) and Penetration (Pativedha) shine forth throughout the world, and having liberated beings Buddha Dīpaṅkarā and his Disciples realized final Peace the way a mass of fire went out after blazing with bright flames.

[ 142 ] Contemplation on impermanence, etc., (saṃvega)

The glory of that Buddha Dīpaṅkarā, his assemblage of four hundred thousand Arahants, etc., who were all his Disciples, the signs on both his feet-all had ceased to exist. Impermanent are all conditioned things! They are indeed unsubstantial!

Erection of a cetiya.

In this way Buddha Dīpaṅkarā who had penetrated all the Four Noble Truths without exception attained Parinibbāna at Nandārama Park. In the same Park was erected a cetiya, thirty yojanās in height and dedicated to Buddha Dīpaṅkarā. It was of powdered red orpiment mixed with oil and butter, and in it were enshrined a Buddha Dīpaṅkarā's relics which were in an indestructible and undispersed mass, a natural phenomenon common to all long-lived Buddhas. People of Jambudipa came together and completed the cetiya with decorations of seven kinds of gems.

Here ends Dīpaṅkarā Buddhavaṃsa.

2. KOṆḌAÑÑA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

The aeon in which Buddha Dīpaṅkarā appeared came eventually to an end; when asaṅkhyeyya (incalculable) aeons had passed after that there appeared Buddha Koṇdañña in a certain aeon.

(Though asaṅkhyeyya is a number which is incalculable the period between the previous Buddha Dipaṅkara and the following Buddha Koṇḍañña is called Buddhantaraasaṅkheyya as it is to be unhderstood as an interval between two Buddhas.)

This is how Buddha Koṇḍañña appeared: At the end of his fulfilment of the Perfections for sixty asankhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons, while enjoying his life in the divine abode of Tusita which is a tradition followed by all Bodhisattas, and having complied with the request made by other Devas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Sujātā at King Sunanda's palace in the city of Rammavati.

[ 143 ] (At the moment of his conception there occurred the usual thirtytwo portent phenomena.)

The Bodhisatta was born after ten months had passed. At the moment of his birth also the portents became manifest and other miraculous events that were associated with every Bodhisatta took place.

(All this will be mentioned in detail when we come to the chronicle of Buddha Gotama.)

Royal household life.

Since the Bodhisatta belonged to the clan of Koṇḍañña he was named Prince Koṇḍañña. When he came of age he enjoyed a kingly life for ten thousand years, living in the three most delightful golden palaces, namely, Suci, Suruci and Subha, with his Chief Consort Ruci Devī, and being waited upon and entertained by three hundred thousand female dancers and attendants.

Renunciation.

While Koṇḍañña was living thus Queen Ruci Devī gave birth to a son, named Vijitasena; on seeing the four omens of the aged, the sick, the dead, and the recluse, the Bedhisatta renounced the world, riding a chariot drawn by four throroughbred horses.

Prince Koṇḍañña's renunciation was emulated by ten crores of people who became recluses.

Bodhisatta Koṇḍañña with these ten crores of recluses practised dukkaracariya; on the day he was to achieve Enlightenment, the Bodhisatta partook of milk-rice offered by Yasodharā daughter of a wealthy man of the village of Sunanda. He passed the daytime in the local grove of sāla trees and in the evening went alone to the Bodhi Tree, leaving behind all recluse-followers; on the way, he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by a heretic called Sunanda and as soon as he spread the grass at the foot of a sālakalyani tree the Unconquered Seat (Aparājita Pallanka), fiftyseven cubits in height, appeared.

[ 144 ] Enlightenment.

Sitting crosslegged on the seat, the Bodhisatta put forth energy at four levels and overcame Māra and his army; then he gained Pubbenivāsa Ñāna in the first watch and Dibbacakkhu Ñāna in the middle watch; in the last watch he contemplated the doctrine of Paticcasamuppāda in forward order and backward order; thereafter he entered upon the fourth Jhāna through Ānāpāna Meditation, emerged from it and, while reflecting on the five aggregates, he discerned fifty cheracherisitics concerning the rise and fall of the aggregates and developed Vipassana Insight up to Gotrabhu Ñāna; gaining Arahattamagga Ñāna and penetrating all the attributes of a Buddha, he attained unique Buddhahood at sunrise.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

(1) After his attainment of Buddhahood the Buddha Koṇḍaññā spent seven days at each of the seven places in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree; in the eighth week he accepted the request made by Brahma for his teaching and considered as to whom he should do so ahead of all others. Remembering those eighty crores of recluses who had followed his example of renunciation, he thought of their whereabouts and came to know that they were staying at Devavana, Divine Grove, of Arundhavati town, eighteen yojanās from the Bodhi Tree. Taking his bowl and robe he arrived at their place at once by means of his miraculous power.

Seeing Buddha Koṇḍaññā approaching them from a distance and being moved by devotional faith in him, the ten crores of recluses extended him warm welcome, took the bowl and robe, prepared the seat and paid obeisance to him respectfully; after which they set down at suitable places, surrounding the Buddha.

Then the Buddha gave the Dhammacakkapavattana Discourse that had been delivered by all previous Buddhas as a rule.

Buddha Koṇḍañña who was endowed with unlimited glory, incomparable retinue and fame, countless attributes, formidable appearance to those who are impudent, forbearance like the mass of [ 145 ] earth, morality [extensive] like the mass of water in the ocean, concentration steadfast like Mount Meru, wisdom [infinite] like the open space, always engaged himself in teaching the faculties (indriya), powers (bala), constituents of Enlightenment (bojjhanga), factors of the Path (maggaṅga), Truths (sacca) as revealed in the Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, the doctrines contributing to Enlightenment, for the benefits of large numbers of beings.

At this teaching of the First Sermon, one hundred crores of Devas and man headed by ten crores of bhikkhus realized the four Truths.

(This was the first occasion of Dhammābhisamaya on which the Buddha taught the four Truths to humans, Devas and Brahmas.)

This was followed at one time by the delivery of the Maṅgala Sutta at a great gathering to which Devas and Brahmas from the tenthousand world-system came, assuming minute subtle bodies (so that there could be enough room for them all) in the universe. At this gathering, an unknown Deva raised the question of blessings (maṅgala), asking as to what helped to bring about a perfect life with prosperity. Addressing that Deva, the Buddha taught the Maṅgala Sutta.

At that teaching of the Maṅgala Sutta, ninety thousand crores of Devas and humans attained Arahantship. Those who became Sotapanna, etc., were innumerable.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya, occasion of the Buddha's teaching of the four Truths to humans, Devas and Brahmas.)

When Buddha Koṇḍañña taught the Dhamma, staying in the sky after defeating the heretics by a display of the twin miracle of water and fire, eight-thousand crores of humans, Devas and Brahmas attained Arahatta phala. Those who were established in the three lower phalastages were innumerable.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya occasion of the Buddha's teaching of the four Truths to humans, Devas and Brahmas.)

[ 146 ] Three occasions of the Disciple's meeting (sannipāta).

There were also three occasions of sannipāta, meeting of Buddha Koṇḍañña's Disciples:
That first occasion took place in Canda Park, Candavati being his supporting city, when he observed the first vassa after he had attained Buddhahood penetrating the four Truths.

In that city two young men, Bhadda, son of Sucindhara, and Subhadda, son of Yasodharā, both fathers belonging to the lineage of immensely rich Brahmana families, listened to Buddha Koṇḍañña's sermon; as a result, they developed devotional faith, donned the robes together with ten thousand youths in the presence of the Buddha and attained Arahantship. There the Buddha being surrounded by one hundred crores of Arahants led by Subhadda Thera recited the Patimokkha on the full-moon day of Jettha (MayJune)

(This was the first sannipāta.)

Some time later Buddha Koṇḍañña's son, Prince Vijitasena (after becoming a bhikkhu) attained Arahantship; the Buddha then recited the Pātimokkha in the midst of one thousand crores of Arahants with Vijitasena Thera at their head.

(This was the second sannipāta)

Finally, at one time while visiting the countryside, Buddha Kondañña ordained King Udena and his host of followers. When they all attained Arahantship, the Buddha, being surrounded by ninety crores of Arahants headed by Udena Thera, recited the Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 147 ] Bodhisatta Gotama as Univeral Monarch vijitāvī received prophecy from Buddha Konṇḍañña

At that time our Bodhisatta was a Universal Monarch, Vijitāvī by name, ruling in the city of Candavati. Having numerous distinguished hosts of attendants, he held under his sway the whole stretch of land in the universe up to the end of the four oceans with righteousness, not by force or by arms.

Then Buddha Koṇḍañña setting out on a journey followed by one hundred thousand crores of Arahants arrived at Candavati. Hearing of the Buddha's visit Bodhisatta King Vijitārvī extended a warm welcome to.the Buddha, made arrangements for his lodging and invited him and his Disciples for the next day's meal; the following day he prepared the meals properly and performed a ceremony of alms-food offering on an elaborate scale.

Having thus performed, the king listened to the Buddha's sermon given in appreciation of the offering at the end of the sermon he made a request thus: "May the Venerable Ones spend the three months of vassa in the city of Candavati to do the citizens a favour." And he performed matchless acts of charity for the congregation of monks led the Buddha arriving the whole period of vassa.

Then Buddha Koṇḍañña declared a prophecy: "Innumerable aeons from the present one, in the aeon that appears after three asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons; you will definitely become a Buddha." ( The prophecy like the one made by Buddha Dipaṅkarā given in full detail in the Pāḷi text mentioning the practice of austerity and other events, but they are not repeated here as they have already been given in the story of Sumedha⁶.)

[ 148 ] Having declared the prophecy, Buddha Koṇḍañña carried on teaching. After listening to the Buddha's sermon, the king's faith in the Buddha grew to a great extent and being desirous of achieving Buddhahood, he made an offering of his vast kingdom to the Buddha, in whose presence he became a monk. After learning the Three Pitakas, he acquired the eightfold attainment and fivefold higher knowledge; reaching the apex of the higher knowledge, he was reborn in the Brahma abode on his death.

Particulars of Buddha Koṇḍañña.

Buddha Koṇḍñña's place of birth was the city of Rammāvati.

His father was King Sunanda, and his mother Sujātā Devi.

His two Chief Disciples were Bhadda Thera and Subhadda Thera. His attendant was Anuruddha Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Tissā Therī and Upatissa Theri. His Bodhi tree was a Sālakalyānī tree.

His lay attendants were Sona and Upasoṇa. His female lay attendants were Nandā and Sirimā.'

His height was eighty-eight cubits, and he shone like the moon or the sun at noon.

The life-span then was one hundred thousand years and throughout that long period he saved beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas, taking them out of the waters of saṃsarā and placing them onto the land of Nibbāna.

While a lay man, Buddha Koṇḍañña had three palaces; Suci Golden Palace, Suruci Golden Palace and Subha Golden Palace.

His female attendants were three hundred thousand. His Chief Consort was Ruci Devī, and his son Vijitasena. He reigned for ten thousand years.

[ 149 ] He used for his renunciation the chariot drawn by thoroughbred horses. When he became Buddha he stayed at Candārama (Canda Park).

In Buddha Koṇḍañña's Dispensation the earth with Arahants, whose āsavas were gone and who were purified of impurities, was in splendour like the open sky with stars and planets. (That is to say, the colour of the Arahants' robes covered the surface of the whole earth.)

The Arahants were of incomparable nobility. They were not at all disturbed by the eight vicissitudes of life; it was hard for the fierytempered unruly people to approach them. When these Arahants who were endowed with great fame were desirous of passing into Nibbāna they rose to the sky, about seven toddy palm trees high, (as though the lightening rushes into the murky clouds) they entered upon tejo kasina Jhāna (attained with the fire-element as a kasina device and flashing a great light completely burned up in the sky and attained Parinibbana,

Saṃvega.

The peerless glory of Buddha Koṇḍañña and his concentrated mind that was permeated with Omniscience had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

Buddha Koṇḍañña who had fully realized the Four Noble Truths attained Parinibbana at Candārāma. In the same park a cetiya, seven yojanās high, was built; it was of powdered red ointment, mixed with oil and butter and was dedicated to Buddha Koṇḍañña.

The unbreakable relics of the Buddha, true to the nature of longlived Enlightened Ones, remained solid like golden images without falling into pieces. These relies were enshrined in the cetiya and people from all over Jambū-dīpa completed the construction by decorating it with seven kinds of precious stones.

[ 150 ] Here ends Koṇḍañña Buddhavaṃsa.

3. MAṄGALA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

When incalculable aeons had elapsed after the aeon of Buddha Koṇḍañña in one kappa there appeared four Buddhas, namely, (1) Maṅgala, (2) Sumanā, (3) Revata and (4) Sobhita in that order. The first of the four Buddhas therefore was Maṅgala.

Conception.

Having fulfilled the Perfections for sixteen asañkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons and on completion of his fulfilment of the Perfections, Bodhisatta Maṅgala was reborn in Tusita, following, the custom of all Future Buddhas. While enjoying a divine life he accepted the request made by Devas, descended to the world of human beings and took conception in the womb of Uttarā, Queen of King Uttara, in the city of Uttara which excelled all other cities.

The mother's body luminescence.

From the moment the Bodhisatta took conception, the light from the Queen's body spread eight cubits all around and could not be overpowered even by sun light and moon light. Not requiring other lights, the queen moved about by means of her own luminescence with her maids of honour at her service.

Birth of the Bodhisatta.

The conception was guarded by celestial beings, and when ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in the excellent and delightful Uttaramadhura Park.

Royal household life.

When Bodhisatta Maṅgala came of age he ascended the throne, lived in three golden palaces--the most famous Yasavanta Palace, the most delightful Rucimanta Palace and the most splendid Sirimanta Palace--together with his Chief Consort Yasavati surrounded by thirty thousand dancers who were exquisitely adorned; thus he enjoyed kingly luxuries that were likened to divine comforts for nine thousand years.

[ 151 ] Renunciation.

When Queen Yasavati gave birth to a son named Sīvala, the Bodhisatta saw the four omens of the aged, the sick, the dead and the recluse, and renounced the world going forth riding the well decorated thoroughbred horse called Paṇḍara and became a monk.

His example was followed by three crores of people who also donned the robe.

With the three crores of monks Buddha Maṅgala engaged in dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full-moon day of Vesākha when he was about to attain Buddhahood, he partook of the milkfood offered by Uttarā, daughter of a wealthy man and a resident of the village of Uttara. After spending the daytime in the local sāla grove he left behind his host of bhikhus and went alone to the great Bodhi Tree in the evening. On the way he accepted the eight handfuls of grass from a heretic, Uttara by name. As soon as he spread the grass under the Naga Bodhi tree , there rose Aparajita Seat, fifty-eight cubits high.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Sitting cross-legged on that seat and putting forth energy at four levels, the Bodhisatta defeated Mara and his army; he acquired Pubbenivasa Ñāna in the first watch and Dibbacakkhu Ñāna in the middle watch of the night. In the last watch, however, he reflected on the Doctrine of Paticcassamuppāda in forward and backward order, after which he entered upon the Fourth Jhāna through Ānāpāna Meditation. Having emerged from that Jhāna he reflected on the five aggregates, discerned the fifty characteristics of their rise and fall and developed Vipassana Insight up to Gotrabhū Ñāna; gaining the Arahattamagga Ñāna and penetrating all attributes of a Buddha, he attained incompariable Buddhahood at sunrise.

[ 152 ] Extremely bright rays of the body.

Buddha Maṅgala's rays shone forth more intensely than those of other Buddhas. The rays from others produced automatically without supernormal power, reached the distance of either eighty cubits or just an arms length. But Buddha Maṅgala's rays shone day and night all over the ten-thousand world-system. Because of such brilliance not only all the sorrounding objects such as trees, the ground, forests, hills, oceans, etc., were illuminated, but, to say the least, pots and pans that were usually dirty and black (with soot) were lit up as if they were covered with gold.

The life span of people belonging to the period in which Buddha Dīpaṅkarā appeared was ninety thousand years, and during that whole period everything was thus gold in colour. During his Dispensation the sun, the moon, stars and planets had no light. Since there was no sunlight the demarcation between day and night was not distinct.

Though there was absence of sunlight, people moved about attending to their business by means of the Buddha's rays. Days and nights are recognized with the help of the chirps of birds, that were normally heard in the morning and the blooms of flowers that are normally seen in the evening.

The question may be asked whether other Buddhas were lacking such glorious powers. The answer is: they were not, indeed they also had such powers. They could make the rays permeate the tenthousand world-system if they so desired. But while others had their natural luminescence of their bodies just within an arm's length, the rays of Buddha Maṅgala's body always spread throughout the tenthousand world-system without having to be produced purposely because of the power of his wish made in a previous existence.

Buddha Maṅgala's wish made in a previous existence.

While Buddha Maṅgala was a Bodhisatta in one existence that was similar to that of Vessantara, he lived with his wife and children at a place that resembled Vaṅka-pabbata.

[ 153 ] Hearing that the Bodhisatta was very generous, an ogre named Kharadāṭhika in the guise of a Brahmin approached him to ask for his son and daughter.

Then the Bodhisatta handed his son and daughter over to the Brahmin most delightedly and thus caused the trembling of the great earth, two hundred and forty thousand leagues in size, the bottom of which touching the waters below.

Leaning against the wooden plank of the railing of the walkway, the ogre devoured up both children as though he chewed and ate a bundle of lotus stems while the Bidhisatta was looking on.

While looking thus, he saw bright blood like flames of fire pouring out from the ogre's mouth as he opened it, but there arose not one iota of distress in him. Instead, he was greatly delighted and happy, thinking "This is my excellent act of charity."

He then expressed his wish, "As a result of this generous act of mine, may my body emanate rays in future bright like the blood (in the ogre's mouth)." Hence in fulfilment of that wish on attainment of Buddhahood, the brilliant natural rays emanated and spread from Buddha Mangala's body all over the ten-thousand world-system.

Besides, there was another wish made previously by Buddha Maṅgala. As a Bodhisatta he once got an opportunity to pay homage to a cetiya dedicated to a Buddha. Thinking "I should sacrifice my life to this Enlightened One," he had his whole body wrapped up in cloth soaked with oil. He then filled a golden bowl worth one hundred thousand pieces of money, with butter through the slit at the brim about a cubit in diametre. In that golden bowl he lighted a thousand wicks and carried the bowl on his head. He also set his body ablaze and spent the whole night circumambulating the sacred cetiya.

Though the Bodhisatta was paying homage thus till dawn, the heat could not touch even the pores of his body as if he were staying amidst lotus blooms. Indeed the nature of the Dhamma is that it gives reciprocal protection from danger to one who protects (practises) it. Therefore the Buddha says:

[ 154 ] Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacārim.

Dhammo suciṇṇo sukham avahati esānisaṃso dhamme suciṇṇe na duggatim gacchati dhammacārī

Also as a result of this act of merit Buddha Maṅgala's natural body rays spread throughout the ten thousand world systems.

Three occassions of the Buddha's teaching (Dhammāhisamaya).

his Enlightenment Buddha Maṅgala stayed for seven days at each of the seven sites near the Bodhi Tree. He then accepted the Brahma's request for his teaching, and when he contemplated whom he should teach he saw the three crores of Bhikkhus who had donned the robe to follow his example and who were endowed with sufficing conditions (upanissaya) for the Path and Fruition.

Thinking that he would teach them ahead of all others, the Buddha contemplated also their whereabouts and came to know that they were staying in the forest called Sirivana of the city of Sirivaddhana, eighteen leagues away from the great Bodhi Tree. Taking with him the bowl and the robe the Buddha immediately set out on an aerial journey to the forest of Sirivana.

On seeing the Buddha approaching them, the three crores of bhikkhus with faithful minds welcomed the Buddha, took over the bowl and the robe from him, prepared the seat for him, and paid obeisance respectfully. When all this had been done (surrounding the Buddha), they all took their appropriate seats.

Then the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta as all previous Buddhas did as a rule. The result was that the three crores of bhikkhus attained Arahatta phala. (They all became Arahants.) Devas and humans numbering one hundred thousand realized the four Truths. (They were thus liberated.)

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 155 ] Immediately before Buddha Maṅgala taught the Abhidharnmā, he was staying near the city of Citta, his resort for food. As our Buddha (Gotama) who performed the Twin Miracle of water and fire near the mango tree of the gardener, Kanda, near the city-gate of Sāvatthi, and defeated the heretics, so did Buddha Maṅgala display the Twin Miracle and crushed the heretics at the city-gate of Citta. He then went up to Tāvatiṃsa where he sat down on the emerald stone slab, paṇḍukambala, at the foot of Paricchattaka tree and delivered Abhidhammā discourses to Devas and Brahmas.

Then one hundred thousand crores of Devas and Brahmas realized the four Truths. (They were liberated.)

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Before Buddha Mangala appeared there was King Sunanda in the city of Surabhi; he performed the duties necessary for acquisitions of the wheel (which is one of the seven treasures of a Universal monarch), after fulfilment of which the wheel treasure came into his possession.

When Buddha Maṅgala appeared the Wheel slipped from its place; seeing this, King Sunanda became very unhappy and asked his brahmin advisors: "Why was the wheel treasure that appeared by the power of my meritorious deeds has slipped from its place?"

Then the Brahmins replied:

"O King, the Wheel slips because the life of a Universal Monarch is nearing its end; or when the monarch becomes a monk; or because a Buddha appears.
There is absolutely no danger of your life ending; you will live a very long life."
Indeed Buddha Maṅgala has now appeared in the world. That is the reason for the slipping of your Wheel treasure.

[ 156 ] Having heard the reply given by the Brahmins, the Universal Monarch Sunanda with his retinue paid his respects to the Wheel treasure and made a request thus: "I will do obeisance to Buddha Mangala by means of your glory, O Wheel. Please do not disappear yet in the meantime." Then the Wheel took again at its normal place.

Immensely delighted, Universal Monarch Sunanda, with his multitude of people, thirty leagues in size, approached Buddha Maṅgala who was indeed Maṅgala (Auspiciousness) of the whole world. The king gave alms on a grand scale to the Buddha and his Saṅgha; he offered the hundred thousand Arahants pieces of cloth from Kāsi to be made into robes, and all kinds of requisites to the Buddha. After the alms-giving he sat down at a suitable place to listen to the Buddha's sermon. Likewise Prince Anurāja, son of the Universal Monarch, took his seat.

Then Buddha Maṅgala gave the audience headed by king Sunanda the usual series of sermons. This led to the attainment of Arahantship with the fourfold Analytical Knowledge by Universal Monarch Sunanda and his followers numbering ninety crores.

Contemplating the acts of merit done by them in the previous existence he saw their past wholesome deeds that would bring them bowls and robes miraculously (without looking for them). So the Buddha stretched out his right arm and uttered: "Etha Bhikkhavo" "(Come, O monks!)" Instantly all of them became monks with their hair of two fingers length, carrying their respective bowls and putting on their respective robes and assuming the respectable appearance of Mahā Theras of a hundred years' standing in the Order, finally they surrounded the Buddha.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 157 ] Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting. (sannipāta)

While Buddha Maṅgala was sojouring in the city of Mekhala, his Future Chief Disciples, the young men Sudeva and Dhammasena, who had one thousand (according to the Sinhalese Commentary, ten thousand) youthful companions each, became ehi bhikkhus in the Buddha's presence, and when they attained Arahantship on the full moon of Magha (January-February), the Buddha recited the Ovada Pātimokkha in the midst of one hundred thousand crores of monks.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

Again the Buddha recited the same Pātimokkha at the meeting of one thousand crores of monks who had been ordained at the assembly of the Buddha's kinsmen that took place in the Park named Uttara.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

In the midst of ninety crores of monks who took part in the Saṃgha meeting headed by the bhikkhu who formerly was Sunanda the Universal Monarch, the Buddha repeated his recitation of the Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Bodhisatta Gotama as Brahmin Suruci received prophecy from Buddha Maṅgala.

At the time of Buddha Mangala our Bodhisatta was a Brahmin, Suruci by name, living at the village of Suruci; he was accomplished in the Vedas (Vedic texts), nighaṇṭu (glossary), ketubha (rhetoric), akkharapabheda (grammar) and itihāsa (legends and histories) as the fifth treatise.

He was clever in writing and reading poetry (padaka) as well as prose (veyyākaraṇa).

[ 158 ] He was well-versed in Lokāyata philosophy which was concerned not with spiritual matters but only with mundane affairs and also in Mahapurisa Lakkhanā, the art of reading bodily signs of a superior being.

Having listened to the Buddha's talks on the Dhamma, Suruci Brahmin cultivated faith in the Buddha and took refuge in the Three Gems. He then invited the Buddha and his disciples, "Please accept my offering of food for tomorrow."

Brahmin, how many monks do you like to have? asked the Buddha. "How many monks are there, Venerable Sir?" "There are all together one hundred thousand crores" replied the Buddha as it was the occasion when his Disciples assembled for the first time. "Then, Venerable Sir, together with all these monks, please accept my offering of the meals". The Buddha kept silent showing his consent.

Having invited the Buddha, Bodhisatta Suruci Brahmin went home and thought thus: "I can afford to give such a great number of monks rice gruel and pieces of cloth meant to be robes. But how can the seating for them be arranged?"

The Bodhisatta's thought caused warming of the stone slab which was the seat of Sakka on Mount Meru eighty-four thousand leagues high.

Then Sakka contemplated thus: "Who is interested in removing me from this place?" When he looked for the cause of the warming of his seat he saw Suruci brahmin; it then occured to him thus: "This Bodhisatta has invited the Saṃgha led by the Buddha for meals and is worrying about their accomodation. I should go there and take my share of merits. Assuming the appearance of a carpenter and carrying an axe in hand he appeared before the Bodhisatta.

[ 159 ] Consultion on construction of a pavillion.

Sakka as the carpenter enquired: "Is there any job for a worker?" "Seeing the carpenter the Bodhisatta asked: "What can you do? "There is no craft that I do not know. If anybody wants to build a pavilion, a palace, a house, or any other building, that is my job". "Then I have something for you to do." "What is that?" "I have invited a hundred thousand crores of monks to tomorrow's meal. Can you build a pavilion to accommodate themo" "Yes, I can, provided you pay me." "Friend, I will." "Very well, I will construct it as you will make payment." So saying Sakka looked round for a certain plot of land.

Rise of a jewelled pavillion from the earth.

The plot of land, twelve leagues in size, which was viewed by Sakka, became an evenly level ground like a kasiṇa-device Sakka looked around and made the wish: "Let a great pavilion of seven kinds of jewels, pleasing to the eye and richly adorned, appear from the earth." And while he was watching there rose up a great pavillion of jewels splitting the earth surface. Its pillars of gold had lotus-vases of silver: its pillars of silver had lotus vases of gold; its pillars of rubies had lotus-vases of coral, its pillars of coral had lotus-vases of rubies, and its pillars of seven kinds of jewels had lotus-vases of seven kinds of jewels.

Thereupon he looked at the pavillion and made the wish: "Let there be chains of tinkling golden bells hanging down between the pillars in the pavilion". As he was thus looking, the chains of tinkling golden bells appeared hanging down between one pillar and another. Fanned by a gentle breeze, the tinkling bells made a very sweet sound like the sound of music produced by five kinds of musical instruments. It was like the time when celestial beings in heaven performed a concert.

[ 160 ] Again, he made the wish: "Let there be festoons of heavenly perfumes, festoons of flowers and festoons of leaves hanging down." At that moment festoons of heavenly perfumes, flowers and leaves appeared hanging down.

Again, he made the wish: "Let seats for the hundred thousand crores of monks, costly spreads and bowl-stands allowable to monks appear breaking the earth." At that very moment those things appeared.

Still again Sakka made the wish: "Let there be huge water pots in every corner". At that moment huge water pots appeared.

When all this had been created, Sakka went to the Bodhisatta Brahmin Suruci and said: "Come, Brahmin, please have a look at your pavillion and make payment due to me". The Bodhissatta went to the pavilion and while he was examining it the whole frame of his body was suffused with five kinds of joy.

Performance of Mahā Dāna.

While the Bodhisatta was looking at the pavilion, it occurred to him thus: "This pavilion could not have been made by a human being. On account of my wholesome desire to perform a great act of charity and also of my virtues, surely Sakka's seat must have become warm. The warmth must have led, the king of Devas to construct this pavilion; with such a pavilion, it does not befit me to make offerings just for one day. For seven days shall I perform a great act of charity." He then accommodated the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha in the pavilion for seven days and offered them specially prepared milk-rice.

When the milk-rice was offered, it was not possible for the people alone to wait upon the monks. Devas too, one beside each man, participated in waiting upon them. The site which was twelve or thirteen leagues was not large enough for all the bhikkhus. Therefore these bhikkhus who could not get seats had to make their own accommodation there by exercising their respective powers.

Offering of medicinal food and sets of three robes.

The day the alms-giving was over, all the monks' bowls were washed well, filled with clarified butter, ghee, honey, molasses for medicinal purposes and were offered together with sets of three robes. The set of robes that was received by the most junior member of the Saṃgha was worth one hundred thousand pieces of money.

Buddha Mangala's prophetic declaration.

[ 161 ] When Buddha Mangala was giving his sermon in appreciation of the alms given to him, he contemplated through his foreseeing wisdom: "This man had performed such an act of great alms-giving. What will he become in future?" Then the Buddha foresaw that he would definitely become a Buddha, Gotama by name, in one Bhadda Kappa after two asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons had elapsed. The Buddha then called out Brahmin Suruci and made a prophetic declaration: "When two asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons have elapsed you will definitely become a Buddha, Gotama by name."

Hearing Buddha Mangala's prophecy the Boddhisatta became elated and rejoiced, and it occured to him thus: "The Buddha has prophesied that I would-certainly become a Buddha. What is the use of living a household life. I shall go forth even now". "Having abandoned the wealth of a rich Brahmahnic household as though it were spittle, he became a monk in the presence of Buddha Mangala, learned the three Pitakas, attained the five Abbhiññās and eight Jhānas, and without falling from his Jhānas he was reborn in the Brahma world on his death.

Particulars of Buddha Mangala.

Buddha Maṅgala's birthplace was the city of Uttara.

His father was King Uttara and mother Queen Uttara.

His two Chief Disciples were Sudeva Thera and Dhammasena Thera. His attendant was Pālita Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sivala Theri and Asoka. Theri. His Bodhi Tree was a nāga-tree.

His supporters were the wealthy men Nanda and Visakha. His female supporters were Anula and Sutana.

[ 162 ] Buddha Maṅgala's height was eighty-eight cubits. His physical rays always appeared in splendor throughout the ten-thousand worldsystem as has been said before. Sometimes they spread beyond the ten-thousand world-system, reaching hundreds of thousands of world systems.

The life-span of people in his time was ninety thousand years, and the Buddha lived throughout that period, rescuing such beings as humans, Devas and Brahmas out of the waters of samsara and carried them onto the shores of Nībbāna.

While a lay man, the golden places he lived in were three: Yasavanta Palace, Rucimanta Palace, and Sirimanta Palace.

He had thirty thousand female attentants. His Chief Consort was Yasavatī. His son was Sivala. He reigned for nine thousand years.

He went forth riding the horse named Pandara. On his Enlightenment he stayed in Uttara Park.

Just as counting the waves in the great ocean is impossible, so was the numbering of the Arahant-Disciples of Buddha Mangala.

Throughout the lifetime and Dispensation of Buddha Mangala who conveyed all the three kinds of beings to Nibbāna, there never was a single recluse who died with defilements. (They all became Arahants and passed away pure into Nibbāna.)

Buddha Mangala, who had large numbers of followers and great fame, lighted the Lamp of Dhamma and saved a great multitude of people from Samsāric currents to Nibbanic shores. Like a mass of fire that had shone forth became extinct and like the sun that was gone, the Buddha attained Parinibbāna revealing thereby the nature of impermanence, suffering and uncontrolability of conditioned things to humans together with Devas and Brahmas.

[ 163 ] As soon as Buddha Maṅgala had thus passed away, his physical rays disappeared, and the entire ten-thousand world-system was left in total darkness. There occured then great lamentation of people throughout the world systems.

Samvega.

The peerless glory of Buddha Maṅgala and his concentrated mind that was permeated with Omniscience had all vanished. Unsubsantial and futile indeed are all condifioned things!

Cetiya.

Buddha Maṅgala who had fully realized the Four Noble Truths thus attained Parinibbāna at Uttara Park. (So called because its fruit trees bore more fruits and its flower trees had more flowers than those of other gardens.) In the same park a c¿tiya, thirty yojanās high, was built with the soft plaster made of powdered red ointment mixed with oil and butter; and it was dedicated to Buddha Maṅgala.

The unbreakable relics of the Buddha, true to the nature of longlived Enlightened Ones, remained solid like a golden image without falling into pieces. These relics were enshrined in the cetiya and people from all over Jambudipa completed the construction by decorating it with seven kinds of precious stones.

Here ends Maṅgala Buddhavaṃsa.

4.Sumanā Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 164 ] In this way Buddha Mangala by means of his physical rays outshone the various rays of the sun, the moon, stars and planets, Devas and Brahmas throughout the ten-thousand world-system of Jāti-khetta⁷ making no difference between day and night and then passed away into Nibbāna as though he had simultaneously created massive darkness.

The life-span which was ninety thousand years in Buddha Maṅgala's time gradually decreased down to ten years; and again the life-span increased therefrom and when it reached ninety thousand years Bodhisatta Sumanā having fulfiled the Perfections was reborn in Tusita, an event common to all Bodhisattas. Consenting to the request made by Devas and Brahmas he descended to the human abode and took conception in the womb of Sirimā; Queen of Sudatta, in the city of Mekhala.

At the time of his conception thirty-two prophetic phenomena became manifest. At his birth which took place after ten months similar phenomena also took place, and all miracles associated with all Bodhisattas occurred.

When he came of age, Prince Sumanā occupied three golden palaces, namely, Canda Palace, Sucanda Palace and Vatamsa Palace where he enjoyed for ninety thousand years a blissful life resembling that of Devas with his Chief Consort Vatamsikā (so named because she was comparable to a flower that is worn on the crown of each and every person) waited upon by beautifully adorned maids of honour, six million and three hundred thousand in number.

[ 165 ] (With regard to the number of these maids, it should not be taken that they all waited upon the Princess at the same time; it was the total number of all those ladies who served her in turn.)

When Princess Vatamsikā gave birth to a son, Aṇupama, the Bodhisatta saw the four omens of the aged, the sick, the dead and the recluse, and renounced the world following the tradition of all Bodhisattas in the costume offered by Devas and riding, an elephant. His example of renunciation was followed by thirty crores of people who became recluses like him.

Bodhisatta Sumanā with these thirty crores of recluses engaged in the practices of austerity (dukkaracariya); on the fullmoon day of Vesākha (April-May), having partaken of the milk-food offered by Anupamā, daughter of a wealthy man of the village of Anoma, he spent the daytime in the local Sāla grove; in the evening he left behind all his followers and went alone to the Bodhi Tree; on the way he accepted the eight handfuls of grass offered by Anupama, a heretic, and spread it under the (nāga ) Bodhi Tree; suddenly there arose the Aparājita Seat of thirty cubits in height.

Sitting cross-legged on that seat (as has been described in Mangala Buddhavaṃsa) he dispelled Mara and his hordes, attained Perfect Self-Enlightenment, the crowing glory of the three worlds, and uttered the verse of elation beginning with Anekajātisamsāram that was never missed out by each and every Buddha.

Three occassions of the Buddha's teaching.(Dhammābhisamaya)

After the attainment of Buddhahood and spending for forty nine days in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree, the Buddha accepted the Brahma's request and contemplated as to whom he should teach first; then he discerned the thirty crores of recluses who with him had renounced the world, his half-brother Prince Sarana and his Purohita's son, the youthful Bhavitatta, who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds that would lead them to the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna. Thinking "I shall teach them first," he contemplated as to their whereabouts and saw that they were living in Mekhala [ 166 ] Park of the city of Mekhala, eighteen leagues away from the great Bodhi Tree. Accordingly, taking his bowl and robe the Buddha immediately went through space to Mekhala Park, the residence of those bhikkhus.

On seeing Buddha Sumanā approaching them, the thirty crores of bhikkhus with faithful hearts welcomed the Buddha, took over his bowl and robe, prepared the seat and did obeisance respectfully; when all this was done, they took their appropriate seats, surrounding the Buddha.

Then Buddha Sumanā sent the gardener to fetch Prince Sarana and the youth Bhavitatta, son of the Purohita. To the prince and the youth with their thirty seven crores of followers, to the thirty crores of bhikkhus who were his companions on his renunciation as well as to several crores of humans and Devas, in all, the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka-Pavattana Sutta, which had been taught by previous Buddhas, beat the Drum of his Dispensation of nine constituents⁸, accompanied by the Conch of the Four Noble Truths.

What should be particularly mentioned is this: Having attained Omniscience, Buddha Sumanā was desirious of fulfilling the Brahma's request. In order to liberate beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas from the bondage of existences and to protect those who were robbed of their treasures of meritorious deeds by the robber of defilements, he built the Deathless City of Nibbāna with the walls of morality (sīla), the moats of concentration (samādhi) [ 167 ] that encircled the city and adorned it with the gate of Insight Wisdom (Vipassana Nāṇa), the doors of mindfulness (sati), the grand pavilions and mansions, etc., of Jhāna attainments (samāpatti) and was inhabited by the noble citizens of group of Dhammas pertaining to Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya Dhammas).

Having thus built the City of Nibbāna, Buddha Sumanā created the (unbroken, straight, tidy, beautiful, broad, and long) boulevard of four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness (Satipaṭṭhāna). On either side of the boulevard he laid out peaceful and pleasant rows of shops of Dhamma where those who wanted the precious things of fourfold Fruition (Phala), fourfold Analytical Knowledge, (Paṭisambhidā Ñāṇa), sixfold psychic power (Abhiññāna) and eight Jhānas Attainments (Samāpatti) could buy them to their hearts content with mindfulness (sati), energy (vīriya) moral shame of doing evil (hirī), and moral dread of doing evil (ottappa).

Having thus built the great City of Dhamma and laid out the Market of Dhamma, Buddha Sumanā beat the Drum of Dhamma by delivering the First Sermon, the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta, and provided the means of Liberation to one hundred thousand crores of humans, Devas and Brahmas.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

In order to subjugate the wrongful conceit of the intoxicated and arrogant heretics in Sunandavati, Buddha Sumanā once performed the marvellous Twin Miracle of water and fire near a mango tree and administered the Dhamma, the Elixir of Immortality, to humans, Devas and Brahmas. Then one hundred crores of beings realized the Four Noble Truths.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

On another occasion Devas and Brahmas of the ten-thousand world-system came and met humans, Devas and Brahmas of this universe and discussed Nirodha-samāpatti. "How can one enter upon Nirodha-samāpattti? How can one attain it? How can one arise from it?" Since they could not solve such problems, all of them up to the nine abodes of Brahmas had doubts (as to the right answers) and [ 168 ] split into two groups. Along with King Arindama, Lord of people, they approached Buddha Sumanā, Chief of the three worlds, and put forward the aforesaid questions. The Buddha solved them by giving appropriate Dhamma discourses, and ninety crores of humans, Devas and Brahmas penetrated the Four Noble Truths.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sanNipāta).

There were three occasions of meeting of Buddha Sumanā's Disciples. Of these three the first took place when, having observed vassa with Mekhala city as the resort for food, together with one hundred thousand Arahants who were all Ehi bhikkhus, Buddha Sumanā held Pavarana ceremony on the fullmoon day of Assayuja, the end of vassa.

(This was the first sannipāta).

At one time when Buddha Sumanā was sojourning on the mountain of pure gold, one league in size, which appeared as the fruit of King Arindama's act of merit, he admonished by means of his excellent discourses ninety thousand crores of royal servants who accompanied the king on his visit. The Buddha made them all Ehi bhikkhus and being surrounded by all these bhikkhus, who attained Arahantship on the same day, he recited the Patimokkha at the meeting complete with four features.

(The four features are not given in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary. However, as mentioned in the exposition of the Dighanakha Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya Commentary these should be understood as follows: (1) the meeting is held on the full-moon day of Maga(Jan-Feb); (2) the meeting is held by Arahants of their own accord without being summoned by anyone; (3) bhikkhus (at the meeting) are all Arahants endowed with six Abhiññānas; and (4) they are all Ehi-bhikkhus.)

(This was the second sanNipāta.)

[ 169 ] At another time Sakka came to pay homage to Buddha Mangala. Being surrounded by eighty thousand crores of Arahants the Buddha recited the Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Bodhisatta Gotama as Naga King Atula received prophecy from Buddha Sumanā.

In the lifetime of Buddha Sumanā, Bodhisatta Gotama was reborn as Atula the powerful Nāga King. Learning that a Buddha had appeared in the three worlds and accompanied by all his kith and kin, he came out of his residence and performed acts of merit towards the Buddha and his one hundred thousand crores of bhikkhus by making celestial music in their honour, and by performing a great act of alms giving in the form of food and drinks; he also offered a set of robes to each bhikkhu and was established in the Refuges:

Then Buddha Sumanā prophesied, "This Nāga King will become Buddha Gotama in future."

Hearing Buddha Sumanā's prophecy, Atula the Nāga King became all the more heartened and resolved firmly to increase his effort in fulfilling of the Ten Perfections.

Particulars of the Buddha Sumanā.

Buddha Sumanā's birth place was Mekhala City.

His father was King Sudatta and his mother Queen Sirimā.

He reigned for nine thousand years and his three palaces were Canda Palace, Sucanda Palace and Vatamsa Palace.

His Chief Consort was Vatamsikā who had six million three hundred thousand maids of honour. His son was Prince Anupama.

His two Chief Disciples were Sarana Thera and Bhāvitatta Thera. His attendant was Udena Thera.

[ 170 ] His two female Chief Disciples were Sonā Theri and Upasonā Theri. His Bodhi tree was a Nāga tree.

His distinguished supporters were the wealthy men Varuna and Sarana. His distinguished female supporters were Cālā and Upacālā.

Buddha Sumanā's height was ninety cubits. Resembling a golden pillar created as an object of worship, the Buddha was of great splendour with his physical rays shining forth throughout all universe.

The life-span in his time was ninety thousand years and through out these years he saved large numbers of humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to placed them on Nibbanic shores.

Having liberated those, who deserved liberation, out of the great ocean of samsāra and taught those, who deserved teaching, the Four Noble Truths, Buddha Sumanā attained Parinibbana like the setting moon.

Those noble ones, who had become Arahants after eradicating their moral intoxicants (āsavas), and that Buddha Sumanā, who was unmatched in the three worlds brightened the peerless light of Dhamma having done so the most glorious, famous Buddha and his Disciples attained Parinibbana.

Samvega.

Buddha Sumanā's unrivalled Omniscience, his matchless Dhamma treasures such as the four Fruitions, the fourfold analytical knowledge, etc., had all disappeared. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this manner the attainment Parinibbana by Buddha Sumanā, who had realized the Four Noble Truths without any exception and who had achieved great fame, took place in the Park called Anga. In that very Park was constructed a cetiya, four yojanās high; it was powdered red ointment mixed with oil and butter and dedicated to Buddha Sumanā.

[ 171 ] As it was customary with long-lived Buddhas the relics that were unbreakable remained like golden statues. These relics were enshrined in that cetiya which was decorated with seven kinds of jewels and completed by people of Jambudipa.

End of Sumanā Buddhavaṃsa.

5. REVATA Buddhavaṃsa.

After Buddha Sumanā had attained Parinibbāna, the life-span of human beings decreased gradually from ninety thousand years down to ten years; and from ten years it again increased up to an asaṅkhyeyya; when the life-span became sixty thousand years on its decline, the Bodhisatta Revata, on complete fulfilment of the Perfections, was reborn in Tusita as it was a custom observed by all Bodhisattas. While enjoying the celestial life there he agreed to comply with the request made by Devas and Brahmas, descended to the human abode and took conception in the womb of Queen Vipulā, wife of King Vipula, in the city of Sudhaññavatī. When ten months had elapsed he came out of the mother's womb like the golden Haṃsa King that appears from Mount Citta.

Royal household life.

When the Bodhisatta, Prince Revata, came of age, he resided in three uniquely beautiful palaces, namely, Sudassana, Ratanagghi, and Āvela that came into existence as a result of his Perfections and glorious deeds of the past, enjoying a royal household life, that was comparable with a divine life, for six thousand years together with his Consort Sudassanā and being entertained and waited upon by thirty-three thousand attendants.

Renunciation.

While he was thus enjoying, his wife Princess Sudassanā gave birth to a son named Varuṇa. After seeing the four omens, in the attire presented by Devas which was a feature of all Bodhisattas, he [ 172 ] mounted the chariot drawn by thoroughbreds, went forth renouncing the world in a procession composed of his fourfold army of elephants, horses, chariots and foot-soldiers, like the moon surrounded by stars and planets like Sakka, King of Devas, followed by his fellow-beings or like Harita, King of Brahmas, followed by divine beings of his abode. On reaching a grove he handed over his garments to the keeper of his treasures, cut off his hair with the ever-present sword and flung up his hair into the sky.

The hair was received in a golden receptable by Sakka, who built a cetiya over it in Tāvatiṃsa on Mount Meru-a cetiya of seven kinds of jewels.

Having put on the lotus-robe offered by the Brahma and thus become a recluse, a crore of men followed his example and became recluses themselves.

Bodhisatta Revata then put efforts to undergo practice of austerity (Dukkaracariya) with his one crore of followers for seven months.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Having completed Dukkaracariya practice, on the full-moon day of Vesakha-the day he was to become a Buddha-he partook of the milk-food offered by Sādhu Devī, daughter of a wealthy man, and spent the daytime in the local Sāla grove. In the evening he left behind his followers and went alone to the region of the great Bodhi Tree. On the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass from a heretic, Varunindhara by name, and spread it under the Nāga Bodhi tree. Suddenly, there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka of fifty-three cubits in size, on which he sat crosslegged, mobilized his resources of fourfold energy, dispelled Mara and his forces, and attained the Omniscient State of a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, Chief of the three worlds.

[ 173 ] Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood and staying near the Bodhi Tree for forty-nine days, Buddha Revata accepted the Brahma's request for his teaching. When he considered as to whom he should teach first he discerned the one crore of bhikkhus, who followed him on his renunciation, and also Devas and other humans, who were endowed with meritorious deeds of the past leading them to the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna. When he contemplated their whereabouts, he came to know that they were staying in Varuna Park, eighteen leagues from the great Bodhi Tree. Taking his bowl and robe, he then immediately went to the bhikkhus' residence, Varuna Park, by aerial journey.

(To cut the story short, on his arrival there Buddha Revata was very warmly received by the bhikkhus.) To these bhikkhus the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta and made the bhikkhus, numbering one crore, realize Arahantship. Those who were established in lower Paths and Fruitions were countless.

(This was the First Dhammābhisamaya)

At another time Buddha Revata paid a visit to the city of Uttara, so named because it excelled all other cities, during the reign of King Arindama, who had conquered all his enemies. Learning of the Buddha's arrival, the king with his three crores of followers extended a warm welcome and invitation to the Buddha for the morrow' s meal. For seven days he gave great Dāna and held a festival of lights extending three gāvutas in honour to the Buddha and stayed near him. Then the Buddha gave variegated sermons that suited the king's disposition. On that occasion of teaching of Dhamma one thousand crores of Devas and men attained liberation as they realized the Truths.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time, while sojourning at a place near the markettown of Uttara, a resort for his alms-food, Buddha Revata engaged himself in Nirodhasamapatti for seven days. Then townsfolk brought [ 174 ] rice-gruel and other kinds of food and drink and offered them to the members of the Saṃgha. "Venerable Sirs, where is the Buddha staying?" asked the people. "Dear supporters," replied the monks, "the Buddha is being absorbed in Nirodhasamāpatti." When seven days had lapsed, they all had an opportunity of seeing the Buddha and asked him about the advantages of that very attainment. Accordingly the Buddha explained to them the advantages of Nirodhasamapatti. Then one hundred crores of Devas and humans were established in Arahatta phala.

(This was third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occassions of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three meetings of the Buddha's Disciples, the first of which took place in the city of Sudhannavati where Buddha Revata recited the Patimokkha for the first time to the Arahants, who had become 'ehi bhikkhus' and who too innumerable to count.

(This was the first meeting sannipāta.)

Later at the meeting held in Mekhala city the Buddha recited the Patimokkha to one hundred thousand crores of 'ehi bikkhu' Arahants.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

At the third meeting Buddha Revata explained the three characteristics (impermanence, suffering and unsubstantiality) to the people who came to enquire after the ailing Varuna Mahā Thera, the Buddha's Chief Disciple and Right-hand Man, foremost among knowers of Dhamma as he was able to set the Wheel of Dhamma in constant motion; his condition now was so serious that it gave rise to anxiety and the question "Will he survive?" At that meeting he also made one hundred thousand men ehi bhikkhus and established them in Arahatta phala. Finally he recited the Patimokkha at that very meeting composed of four features⁹.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Bodhisatta Gotama as Brahmin Atideva received prophecy from Buddha Revata.

[ 175 ] At that time our Bodhisatta was a Brahmin named Atideva, fully accomplished in Brahmanic lore, handed down by generation after generation of teachers. On encountering Buddha Revata, and after listening to the Buddha's sermon, he took refuge in the Three Gems. He also sang one thousand verses in praise of the Buddha's attributes of morality, concentration of the mind and wisdom, and offered his upper garment that was worth one thousand pieces of money.

Thereupon Buddha Revata made a prophecy: "Two asaṅkhyeyyas and one hundred aeons after the present one you will become a Buddha by the name of Gotama."

On receiving Buddha Revata's prophecy the Bodhisatta's mind became all the more serene and he courageously resolved to make more effort in fulfilling of the Perfections: "I will contemplate and develop the Perfections and try to grasp Buddhahood that I long for."

Particulars of Buddha Revata.

Buddha Revata's birthplace was Sudhañña City. His father was King Vipula and his mother Queen Vipulā.

He reigned for six thousand years and his three places were Sudassana, Ratanagghi and Āveḷa.

His Chief Consort was Sudassanā who had thirty-three thousand maids of honour. His son was Varuna.

Having seen the four omens he renounced the world in a chariot drawn by thoroughbred horses. He underwent Dukkaracariya for seven months.

His two Chief Disciples were Varuna Thera and Brahmadeva Thera. His attendant was Sambhava Thera.

[ 176 ] His two female Chief Disciples were Bhaddā Therī and Subhaddā Therī. His Bodhi tree was a Nāga tree.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Paduma and Kuñjara. His noble female supporters were Sirimā and Yasavatī.

Buddha Revata's height was eighty cubits. He illumined all the directions like the hoisted banner of Sakka. His physical rays issued and spread all round up to one league day and night.

The life-span in his time was sixty thousand years. He lived throughout the period equal to four-fifths of the life-span rescuing numerous humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to place then on Nibbanic shores.

Having taught the doctrine of Deathlessness to the world by showing the powers of the tenfold wisdom of Enlightened Ones, Buddha Revata attained Parinibbana like great flames of fire that become extinct as the fuel runs out.

Samvega That Buddha Revata's frame which was like a solid gem stone and his incomparable tenfold Dhamma had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

When his Parinibbāna was drawing near Buddha Revata resolved: "May my relics remain not in a mass but split into pieces and reach various places so that, when I am gone, all beings may attain celestial abodes and Nibbāna (as a result of them)." Then he attained Parinibbana in the Nāga grove, neither too near nor too far from the city. His relics did not form into one mass, a deviation from the usual mode of relics of long-lived Buddhas, but dispersed and spread to every nook and corner of Jambudipa in accordance with his resolve and were held in honour by humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Revata Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 177 ] 6. SOBHITA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Revata's Parinibbana, the life-span of human beings decreased gradually from sixty thousand years to ten years and from ten years it increased to asankhyeyya. When the life-span became ninety thousand years on its second decline Bodhisatta Sobhita, after complete fulfilment of the Perfections for four asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons, was reborn in Tusita, a feature shared by all Bodhisattas. While living there he accepted the request made by other Devas, descend from his celestial abode to the human world and took conception in the womb of Sudhamma, Chief Queen of King Sudhamma, in the city of the same name. Ten months thereafter, the Bodhisatta left the mother's womb in Sudhamma Park the way the big full moon came out of the clouds.

Royal household life.

When Bodhisatta Prince Sobhita came of age, he lived in three golden palaces, namely, Kumuda, Nalina and Paduma, a heaven-like royal household life with his Chief Consort Manila, and being entertained and waited upon by thirty-seven thousand female attendants.

Renunciation.

While he was enjoying thus, a son named Sīha was born of the Princess. Seeing then the four omens Bodhisatta Sobhita was stirred by a strong religious emotion. Even in the palace he lived the life of a recluse and also in the palace he practised respiration meditation (ānāpāna-bhāvanā) till he attained the fourth Jhāna; still again in the very palace, he underwent dukkaracariya for seven days.

Then on the fullmoon of Vesākha the day he would attain Enlightenment, he took the milk-food offered by Chief Consort Anulā herself. Bent on renunciation he resolved:

Let this very palace of mine, with its usual decorations, go through the air while the populace is watching and descend onto the earth making the great Bodhi Tree lie in the [ 178 ] centre. When I take residence near the Bodhi Tree may all female courtiers here leave the palace on their own accord without my asking.

As soon as he had thus resolved the Bodhisatta's palace rose from the courtyard of his father, King Sudhamma, into the sky of the dark blue-green colour of collyrium. The palace adorned with scented festoons shone very brightly as though it beautified the whole sky like the sun with its splendid colour of liquid gold showers, and also like the bright moon of the month of Kattikā in autumn. The flying palace travelled all over the vault of heaven and attracted the people's eyes as would the brilliant colour of tree branches and various gems.

It also had a net of various exquisite, little bells hanging downwards. Touched by the breeze the net made sweet tinkling sound that was like the sound of five musical instruments played by highly skilled musicians. The sweet tinkling sound from a distance attracted the people as if enticing them from its aerial travel, neither too low nor too high, whether they were staying in the houses or standing on cross-roads praising and marvelling at the sound; the sound seems to be proclaiming the qualities of the acts of merit done by the Bodhisatta.

The female dancers who came along in the flying palace sang songs with delightful voices resembling the sound of five musical instruments. They also spoke sweetly in praise (of the Bodhisatta) among themselves. The Bodhisatta's fourfold army surrounded the palace in the sky just as it did on the ground army troops that were like divine ones brilliant with their shining equipments and physical radiance and in their raiment of fragrant blossoms.

Having taken its flight the palace descended onto the earth making the Nāga Bodhi Tree lie in the centre. The Tree was eighty eight cubits tall, its trunk straight, broad, round, beautiful with flowers, leaves, sprouts and buds. Then the female dancers got out from the palace and departed of their own accord.

[ 179 ] Attainment of Buddhahood.

Glorious with numerous qualities and surrounded by hosts of people, Buddha Sobhita acquired the three-fold knowledge during the three watches of the night. Māra's forces came as usual. The palace, however, remained there.

Three occasions of Buddha's teaching (Dhammābhisamaya).

After his attainment of Enlightenment, Buddha Sobhita spent forty-nine days near the Bodhi Tree. Having agreed to the Brahma' s entreaty, he thought as to whom he should teach first and saw with his mind's eye his half younger brothers, Princes Asama and Sunetta. Knowing that they were endowed with supporting merits (upanissaya) and able to grasp the profound and subtle Dhamma, he decided to teach them. Accordingly he went through the air immediately and touched down in Sudhamma Park. Through the gardener, the Buddha summoned the princes. Being surrounded by the princes and their retinues in the midst of the audience of countless men, Devas and Brahmas from all over the regions ranging from the highest Bhavagga abode down to the lowest Avici hell, the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta, as a result of which uncountable beings of men, Devas and Brahmas grasped the four Truths.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

On another occasion, having displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire near an exquisite cittapatali tree in the neighbourhood of the city-gate of Sudassana, being seated on the emerald stone slab of pandukambala under the coral tree the Buddha taught Abhidhammā. At the conclusion of the teaching ninety thousand crores of Devas and Brahmas realized the Truths and were liberated.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 180 ] Still on another occasion, Prince Jayasena had a monastery built in the compound of a garden in Sudassana where he had such excellent trees as asoka, assakanna etc., planted, one close to another. He dedicated the monastery together with the garden to the Saṃgha with the Buddha at its head. At the great ceremony of dedication the Buddha Sobhita gave a sermon in appreciating of the dedication, lauding the prince's great generosity (mahādāna). At the conclusion of the sermon one hundred thousand crores of beings--man, Devas and Brahmas-- attained realization of the Truths and liberation.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occassions of the Disciples's meeting (sannipāta).

Another offering of a monastery Sunandarama, at the city of Sunanda, was done by King Uggata to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha. On this occasion a hundred crores of ehi bhikkhu Arahants assembled. To them the Buddha recited the instructive Pātimokkha.

(This was the first Sannipāta.)

Again, a group of virtuous people, Dhammagana, built a monastery named Gaṇārama in the city of Mekhala and offered it to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha; they also performed dāna with various requisites. On this occasion assembled ninety of ehi bhikkhu Arahants. At this meeting the Buddha uttered the instructive Patimokkha.

(This was the second Sannipāta.)

After teaching Abhidhammā in Tāvatimsa and staying there for the whole period of vassa, being accompanied by Devas and Brahmas, Buddha Sobhita came down to the human world to perform pavāranā and did so at the four-factored the meeting of four features attended by eighty crores of Arahants.

(This was the third Sannipāta.)

[ 181 ] Future Buddha Gotama as Brahmin Sujāta received prophecy from Buddha Sobhita.

At that time our Future Buddha Gotama was born to be a Brahmin, Sujāta by name, whose parents were of Brahmin caste, in Rammavati City. Having listened to the Buddha's Dhamma he was established in the three Refuges. He gave alms on a grand scale to the Buddha and his Saṃgha for the three months of vassa. Then the Buddha made a prophetic declaration concerning Sujāta the Brahmin; "This man will become a Buddha, Gotama by name, in future."

Particulars of Buddha Sobhita.

Buddha Sobhita's birthplace was Sudhamma City. His father was King Sudhamma and his mother Sudhammā.

He reigned for nine thousand years. His three palaces were Kamuda, Nalina and Paduma.

His Chief Consort was Manilā who had thirty-seven thousand maids of honour. His son was Sīha.

His conveyance on his renunciation after seeing the four omens was a palace. He observed dukkaracariya just for seven days even in this palace.

His two Chief Disciples were Asama Thera and Sunetta Thera. His attendant was Anoma Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Nakulā Therī and Sujātā Therī. His Bodhi Tree was a nāga tree.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy Ramma and Sudatta. His noble female supporters were Nakulā Upāsikā and Mittā Upāsikā.

Buddha Sobhita's height was fifty-eight cubits. Like the rising sun he possessed body lustre which could shine and spread all over the directions as much as he wished.

[ 182 ] Like a great grove full of trees in full bloom and fragrant with various scents, the Buddha Sobhita's grove of instructive words was fragrant with the scents of morality.

Another simile: as one is not satiated looking at the moving and rising waves of the ocean so beings--humans, Devas and Brahmas --were not satiated listening to the words of Buddha Sobhita.

The life-span in Buddha Sobhita's time was ninety thousand years and living four-fifths of the life-span he saved beings humans, Devas and Brahmas-from samsaric currents and placed them on Nibbanic shores.

After bequeathing his divers teachings, long and short, to future beings who had not attained liberation in his presence, the Buddha Sobhita together with his Disciples came to the cessation of his existence attained Parinibbāna just as a great flame became extinguished.

Saṃvega.

That Buddha Sobhita, equal only to peerless Buddhas and his Arahant-Disciples who had acquired abhiññānas and other powers had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Before his Parinibbāna the Buddha Sobhita resolved: "When I am gone, let the relics of my body not remain in a mass but split into pieces and reach various places' and his Parinibbāna took place in Sīha Park. Accordingly his relics did not remain in a massive but dispersed all over Jambudipa and were worshipped by beings humans, Devas and Brahmas.

[ 183 ] Here ends Sobhita Buddhavaṃsa.

7. ANOMADASSĪ BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After the lapse of the aeon in which Buddha Sobhita lived came incalculable aeons of suñña-kappas, aeons devoid of Buddhas. Again, after these had passed, there appeared in a certain aeon three Buddhas, namely, Anomadassi, Paduma and Nārada. The first of these was the Buddha Anomadassī.

Having fulfilled the Perfections for sixteen asaṅkhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons like other Bodhisattas he was reborn in Tusitā. At the request of other Devas and Brahmas he came down to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Yasodharā of King Yasavā in the city of Candavatī.

A strange thing happened then. As soon as prince Anomadassī was conceived, because of the prince's meritorious deeds, light spread out to the extent of eighty cubits, unsurpassed by the light of the sun and the moon.

When ten months had elapsed Queen Yasodharā gave birth to Prince Anomadassī in Sucandana Park.

On his naming day, he was given the name of Anomadassī by wise men; while the Bodhisatta was in the womb, there was incessant falling from the sky of the jewels called Anoma; hence he was so named.

Royal household life.

When the Bodhisatta, prince Anoma, came of age he lived a divine-like household in three palaces, Sirī, Upasirī and Vaḍḍha with his Consort Sirimā, being entertained and waited upon by twenty-three thousand female attendants for ten thousand years.

Renunciation.

While he was thus living Princess Sirimā gave birth to a son named Upavāṇa. Seeing the four omens, the Bodhisatta Prince

[ 184 ] Anomadassī went forth from household life on a palanquin and became a recluse. Three crores of men who were inspired by his act of renunciation also became recluses like him. Surrounded by these recluses the Bodhisatta practised dukkaracariya for ten months.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Having practised thus he went on alms-round on the full moon day of Vesākha, the day of his Enlightenment, to the Brahmin village of Anupama, partook of the milk-rice offerred by Anopamā, daughter of a wealthy man, then he passed the day in the local sala grove and proceeded alone to the Mahā Bodhi in the evening. On the way he obtained eight handfuls of grass from Anoma the Heretic. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of ajjuna tree there emerged under the tree the Aparājita Seat thirty-eight cubits in size, on which he sat crosslegged, mobilized his resoursce of fourfold energy, dispelled Mara's forces and, above all, attained Buddhahood, the state of a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, Chief of the three worlds.

Having cut of the strings off attachment to samsāra and having overcome with his path-wisdom called kammakkhaya the deeds leading to the three kinds of existence, Buddha Anomadassī was able to expound the doctrine of the Eightfold Noble Path to Nibbāna.

The Buddha was like an ocean, being endowed with virtues that could not be disturbed. With attributes that made it difficult for insincere persons to approach him, he was also like Mount Meru. He was also like the vault of heaven because his qualities are boundless. Magnificent with his characteristic Marks large and small, he was like a great sāla tree in full bloom.

People were delighted to Buddha Anomadassī. Hearing the Buddha's teaching they attained Nibbāna which is deathless.

[ 185 ] Three occassions of Buddha's teaching (Dhammābhisamaya)

Having attained Buddhahood, Buddha Anomadassi stayed around the Bodhi tree for forty nine days; then he accepted the Brahma' s entreaty and surveyed the world of beings with his Buddha's Eye, namely, Āsayānusaya Ñāṇa, knowledge of inclination and latent tendencies of beings, and lndriyaparopariyatti Nāna, knowledge of mature or immature controlling faculties of beings. Then he saw the three crores of his followers who had become recluse together with him and who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds conductive to attainment of the path, fruition and Nibbāna. Reflecting their present whereabout, he saw them in Sudassana park near the city of Subhavatī. He went there through the air, got down in the park and surrounded by the three crores of recluses, delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta amidst the audience of Devas and men. On that occassion a hundred crores of beings, grasping the four Truths, attained liberation.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time when he had performed the Twin Miracles near an asana tree close to Osadhi city, sitting on the emerald stone slab under it he caused the rain of Abhidhammā to fall for the three months of the Vassa. Then eighty crores of beings penetrated the four Truths and attained liberation.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at a later time when the Buddha gave an analytical discourse with regard to maṅgala, auspiciousness, seventy-eight crores of beings attained liberation through the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.

[ 186 ] (This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occassions of Disciples's meeting (sannipāta).

There were also meetings of Buddha Anomadassi's Disciples. At the first meeting Buddha Anomadassi recited instructive Pātimokkha in the midst of eight hundred thousand Arahants, they had already become ehi bhikkhu out of great faith at the time when he taught the Dhamma to king Isidatta in the city of Soreyya.

(This was the first Sannipāta.)

Again, when the Buddha was teaching king Sundarindhara (Madhurindhara) in the city of Rādhavati, he recited the instructive Patimokkha in the midst of seven hundred thousand Arahants who had already become ehi bhikkhus out of faith.

(This was the second Sannipāta.)

Still again, the Buddha uttered the instructive Patimokkha in the midst of six hundred thousand Arahants who had already become ehi bhikkhus together with king Soreyya in the city of the same name.

(This was the third SanNipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Yakkha General received prophecy from Buddha Anomadassi.

During the Dispensation of the Buddha Anomadassī, our future Buddha was a Yakkha General commanding several crores of powerful yakkhas; hearing that "a Buddha has appeared in the world" he visited the Buddha and created a magnificent pavillion decorated with very beautiful gems in which he performed a great alms-giving of food, drink, etc., to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha for seven days.

While the Yakkha General was listening to the sermon given by the Buddha in appreciation of the meal, the Buddha made a prophetic declaration, saying: "One asañkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons from the present kappa, this Yakkha General will definitely become a Buddha by the name of Gotama."

[ 187 ] Particulars of Buddha Anomadassī.

Buddha Anomadasī's birthplace was Candavatī City; his father was King Yasavā and his mother Queen Yasodharā.

He reigned for ten thousand years; his three palaces were Sirī, Upasirī and Vaḍḍha.

His Chief Consort was Sirimā Devī who had twenty three thousand maids of honours; his son was prince Upavāṇa.

It was a golden palanquin that he used as a vehicle when he renounced the world after seeing the four omens; he practised dukkracariya for ten months.

His two Chief Disciples were Nisabba Thera and Anoma Thera; his attendant was Varuṇa Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sundarī Therī and Sumanā Therī, His Bodhi was a Ajjuna tree.

His lay supporters were Nandivaḍḍha and Sirivaḍḍha; his female supporters were Uppalā Upāsikā and Padumā Upāsikā.

Buddha Anomadassī's height was fifty-eight cubits: like the newly rising sun, the rays from his body issued as far as twelve yojanās.

The life-span during the time of Buddha Anomadassī was a hundred thousand years; he lived throughout the period equal to four-fifth of the life-span, rescuing beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas-from samsaric currents to place them on Nibbānic shores.

Buddha Anomadassi's Dispensation consisting of his noble teaching was resplendent with Noble Ones who were Arahants, undisturbed by pleasant and unpleasant conditions of the world and free of passions and other defilements.

[ 188 ] Samvega.

Buddha Anomadassi who posessed boundless retinue and fame and his two Chief Disciples and others who were possessors of peerless qualities had all vanished. Unsubstaintial and furtile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

Buddha Anomadassi, conqueror of the five Maras, attained Parinibbana in Dhammarama park. The cetiya built and dedicated to Buddha Anomadassi in that very park was twenty-five yojanās high.

(Two persons who would become Mahā Thera Sāriputta and Moggalāna prayed in the presence of Buddha Anomadassī for the state of Chief Disciples. This will be narrated later in the section on Gotama Chronicle.)

Here ends Anomadassī Buddhavaṃsa

8.PADUMA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After the Parinibbana of Buddha Anomadassi, the human life-span decreased from a hundred thousand years to ten years and then it increased again to asaiṅkhyeyya and down it went again. When the life-span was a hundred thousand years, future Paduma Buddha, on complete fulfilment of the Perfections, enjoyed life in the celestial abode of Tusitā in the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having agreed to the entreaty of other Devas and Brahmas, he came down to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Asama, Chief Queen of king Asama; when ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in the grove of campaka trees.

At the Bodhisatta's birth a rain of paduma lotuses fell from the sky over the whole of Jambudipa reaching the surrounding seas. On his naming day therefore learned omen-readers and relatives named him Mahāpaduma.

[ 189 ] Royal household life.

When the Bodhisatta Mahapaduma came of age, living in three palaces of Nanduttara, Vasuttara and Yasuttara and being entertained and waited upon by thirty-three thousand female attendants under his Chief Consort Uttara Devi, he lived a divinelike royal household life for ten thousand years.

Renunciation.

While he was thus living, Princess Uttara gave birth to a son named Ramma; after seeing the four omens he went forth in celestial raiment riding a chariot drawn by thoroughbreds and became a recluse. Following his example a crore of men also became recluses. With these recluses, a crore in number, the Bodhisatta engaged in dukkaracariya for eight months.

Enlightenment.

After striving thus for eight months on the day he was to become a Buddha the Bodhisatta enjoyed the milk-rice offered by Dhaññavati, daughter of a wealthy man named Sudhaññavati of the city of Dhaññavati. Having spent his time at midday in the local sala grove he went alone in the evening, leaving his companions, to the place where the Mahā Bodhi stood. On the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass given by Titthaka the heretic, and the moment he spread the grass under a great Sona Bodhi Tree , there emerged the Aparājita seat of thirty-three cubits in size. Sitting cross-legged and mobilizing his resources of fourfold energy the Bodhisatta dispelled Mara's forces and attained the state of a Buddha, Omniscient and Fully Self-Enlightened One, Lord of the three worlds.

Three occasions of Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahoods, the Enlightened One Paduma spent forty-nine days in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi. Having accepted the Brahma's request, he contemplated whom he should teach and saw his fellow recluses, numbering a [ 190 ] crore; after mentally finding out their residence in Dhanañjaya garden near Dhaññavatī city, and taking his bowl and robe he travelled an aerial journey immediately to that place.

On seeing the Buddha coming from a distance, the recluses with faithful hearts welcomed him, taking his bowl and robe, prepared his seat, paying respects and took their seats around the Buddha. Then being thus surrounded Buddha Paduma, like the past Buddhas, taught the Dhammacakka sermon amidst the audience of men, Devas and Brahmas. On that occasion a hundred crores of man, Devas of Brahmas attained the unique Dhamma of Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time Buddha Paduma in an assembly of his relatives helped his younger brothers, Princes Sāla and Upasāla (Future Chief Disciples) and their retinues become monks and gave a sermon to ninety crores of men and Devas who attained the unique Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time Buddha Paduma instructed the Venerable Ramma in Dhamma on which occasion eighty crores of beingshumans, Devas and Brahmas-attained realization of the Four Noble Truths and Liberation.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of Disciples' meeting (Sannipāta).

There were three occasions of the meetings of Buddha Paduma's Disciples; on the first occasion a king by the name of Subhāvitatta became an ehi bhikkhu together with his retinue of a hundred crores. At that meeting the Buddha gave Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

[ 191 ] At a later time Buddha Paduma kept vassa relying upon Usabhavati as his resort for food. Then the Buddha taught the citizens who came to see him. Many of them developed their faith in the Buddha and became monks. On the full-moon day of Assayuja Buddha Paduma performed Visuddhi Pavarana¹⁰ with the monks of Usabhavati and others numbering three hundred thousand Arahants in all. (Visuddhi Pavāranā means the Pavāranā attended by Arahants only. )

(This was the second sannipāta.)

When the lay men in the city who remained householders heard the fruits of kathina-robe offering they offered a piece of kathina cloth to the Saṃgha. Then members of Saṃgha formally dedicated it by reciting the formally of procedure (kammavaca) to the Thera Sala who was privileged to stay on the Buddha's right hand side as Dhammasenāpati, General of Dhamma. Monks then prepared to sew the robe collectively so that the sewing might be finished in the same day. As it was an act of the Order the Buddha himself helped them by putting the thread through the eye of a needle. When the sewing was done the Buddha and his three hundred thousand monks set out on a journey. After that the Buddha observed vassa in a forest that was like Gosinga grove of sala trees. While the Buddha was sojourning with his retinue people came to see him. Having listened to his sermon their faith in him increased and on being called by him, "Ehi bhikkhu", they became monks then and there. Then surrounded by two hundred thousand monks the Buddha performed Pavarana.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

(The second and third sannipātas have been narrated as mentioned in the Commentary. According to the Pāḷi Text, however, the meeting of three hundred thousand where the sewing of the kathina robe for the Chief Disciple Sala took [ 192 ] place, it seems, should be taken as the second sannipāta. Although the Commentator knew this, he described the event somewhat differently from the Text. Since such a deviation was done in line with older Commentators who are believed to have grasped what was meant by the Buddha and since the meetings where Pavarana was performed or Ovada Patimokkha was given are shown as the meetings of Disciples in the previous and later Buddhavaṃsas, the Commentary's order is followed in this work.)

Future Buddha Gotama as lion-king received the prophecy from Buddha Paduma.

While Buddha Paduma was staying in that forest grove our Bodhisatta was king of lions. Seeing the Buddha observed in Nirodhasamāpatti, 'attainment of cessation', the lion-king developed faith in the Buddha, did obeisance by circumambulating him. Exulted with joy he roared three times and remained there for seven days without losing his ecstasy derived from the sight of the Buddha. Without going in search of food he stayed near the Buddha respectfully, at the risk of starvation.

When seven days had elapsed, on emerging from the Nirodha samāpatti, Buddha Paduma saw the lion and made a wish: "May this lion have faith in the Order of monks also"; at the same time he resolved to have the Order near him: "May the monks come here!" Immediately several crores of monks arrived on the spot. The Bodhisatta developed faith in the Order also. After surveying and knowing the Bodhisatta's mind, Buddha Paduma made a prophetic declaration: "In future this lion-king will become a Buddha, Gotama by name,"

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta became even more devotionally inclined and resolutely determined to fulfil the ten Perfections more energatically.

Particulars of Buddha Paduma.

Buddha Paduma's birthplace was Campaka City; his father was King Asama and his mother Queen Asamā.

[ 193 ] He reigned for ten thousand years; his three palaces were Nanduttara, Vasuttara and Yasuttara.

His Chief Consort was Uttarā who had thirty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Ramma.

His vehicle used for renunciation after seeing the four omens was a chariot drawn by thoroughbreds; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Sāla Thera and Upasāla Thera; his attendant was Varuna Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Rādhā Therī and Surādhā Therī; his Bodhi Tree was a Mahāsoṇa tree.

His noble lay attendants were the wealthy Bhiyya and Asama; his lay female attendants were Ruci Upāsikā and Nandarāmā Upāsikā.

Paduma Buddha's height was fifty-eight cubits; the rays that issued from his body diffused as far as he wished.

The lights of the moon, the sun, jewels, fire and rubies disappeared on encounting the body light of the Buddha.

The life-span during the lifetime of Paduma Buddha was a hundred thousand years and living for the four-fifths of the life-span he conveyed beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas-from the sea of saṃāra to the land of Nibbāna,

Having caused the beings of mature faculties realize the Four Noble Truths even in his lifetime leaving out none, having taught other beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas-so that they might realise the Four Noble Truths, together with his several DiscipleArahants, Paduma Buddha attained Parinibbāna.

Just as a snake sheds its old skin, as a tree discards its old leaves, as a bright fire becomes extinct after consuming up all its fuel, so the Buddha attained Parinibbāna,giving up all conditionined things (saṅkhāra), internal and external.

[ 194 ] In this way Buddha Paduma, Conqueror of the five evils (Māras) attained Parinibbāna in the park known as Dhammārāma. In accordance with his resolve, his relics dispersed the way mentioned before and went all over Jambudipa and were honoured by humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Paduma Buddhavaṃsa.

1. Bhudda kappa: for kappa in general, see Vol 1, Part 1, Anudipaī Chapter I, II ,III.

2. Energy of four levels: the levels where one would be reduced to (i) skin, (ii) sinews, (iii) bones and (iv) where one's flesh and blood would dry up. See also Vol 1, Part 1, Anudīpanī, Chapter VI.

3. Gotrabhū Ñāna: the wisdom that helps one cut off the heritages of kāmaconsciousness and evolve the lineage of the Rūpa-class of exalted consciousness.

4. Eight attainments: eight samapatti-attainments of four Rūpa Jhānas and Arūpa Jhānas.

5. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which each bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

6. This statement-made by the another is repeated after the declaration of prophecy made by each Buddha. We will leave out similar statements from the accounts of later Buddhas.

7. There are three regions associated with the Buddha, namely, (I) Jati-khetta, the ten-thousand world-system that quaked at the time of his conception, birth, Enlightenment, giving up of the life-sustaining mental process and attaining Nibbāna; (2) āṇā-khetta, the hundred-thousand world-system throughout which his Teaching spread; and (3) Visaya-khetta, the infinite world systems which form the field of investigation of his Omniscience.

8. Nine constituents of Buddha's dispensation, Navaṅga Sarthu Sāsana: (1) Sutta-Discourses such as Maṅgala Sutta, Ratana Sutta etc., in plain prose. (2) Geyya--Discourses interspersed with many verses such as these in Saḷāyatana Samyutta. (3) Veyyākarana-Teaching without any verses such as Abhidhammā Piṭaka. (4) Gāthā-Tcaching with verses only such as Dhammapada, Thera-gāthā, Therī-gāthā. (5) Udāna-Joyful utterance in 28 discourses such as Anckajāti samsāram. (6) Itivuttaka-18 discourses beginning with the expression "Thus said the Bhagavā". (7) Jātaka- 550 birth stories. (8) Abbhūta Dhamma-Discourses describing the marvellous attributes of such persons as Ānanda etc., (9) Vedalla-Discourses with questions and answers such as Cilia Vedalla Sutta, MahāVedalla Sutta, Sammaditthi Sutta.

9. Four features, see p.

10. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which a bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethrem in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

11. Ten modes for each of the five khandhas make 50 altogether. The ten modes are enumerated in the Patisambhida Magga Commentary as follows: Impermanent (anicca), crumbling (paloka), unstable (cala), disintegrating (pabhangu), uncertain (addhuva), mutable (viparinama dhamma), essence-less (asara), unprosperous (vibhava) and liable to death (marana dhanma).

12. Yakkha Alavaka: The best known yakkha of Buddha Gotama's lifetime. He was king of Alavi. Once while he was away, the Buddha came to his palace and preached his women-folk. Hearing of the Buddha's intrusion, the furious Alavaka hurried home and tried to drive the Buddha out of his residence, bat in vain, on the eontarary, it was the Buddha who succeeded in softening the yakkha's anger. Yet the yakkha asked some questions just to fatigue the Buddha, who answered them all to Ālavaka's satisfaction, making him a sotāpanna.

13. With the snapping of the fingers: equivalent to expression of praise or approval with clapping of the hands.

14. "Elephant of a Buddha": Noble Ones such as Buddhas and Arahants are sometimes figuratively likened to such noble animals as elephants, lions, bulls, etc., in Buddhist literature. For instance in the Dhammapada, there is a chapter named Nāga Vagga, the verses of which described the qualities of a nāga "elephant", that may be compared to those of a sage in the Milindapañha, the epithet Buddha-naga is conspiquously mentioned.

15. See Vol. I, Part II, Chapter VII, voice of eight quanties.

16. Buddhuppada navama, see Chapter VI, REFLECTIONS ON PERFECTIONS, Vol 1, Part 1.

VOLUME_1
PART_2
CHAPTER_9

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THE CHRONICLE OF TWENTY-FOUR BUDDHAS.
BUDDHAVAṂSA. (9 to 16)

9. NĀRADA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Paduma had attained Parinibbāna, the life-span of a hundred years decreased gradually down to ten years and from ten years it again increased up to asankhyeyya. When it was ninety thousand years on its next decline Nārada Bodhisatta lived in Tusita as Bodhisattas did customarily on complete fulfilment of the Perfections. Having accepted the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he came down to the abode of human beings to be conceived in the womb of Anomā, Chief queen of Universal Monarch Sudeva in the city of Dhaññavati. After ten months of his conception the Bodhisatta was born in Dhanañjaya garden.

On his naming day just when he was about to be named, there fell automatically from the sky, from wish-fulfilling trees, etc., various kinds of clothing and ornaments like a heavy rainfall. On account of this he was named Nārada; nara meaning ornaments befitting people and da one who gives, by name-giving wise men.

Royal housahold life.

When Prince Nārada came of age, he lived in three palaces-Jita, Vijita and Abhirama-being entertained and waited upon by twelve hundred thousand female attendants headed by his Chief Consort Vijitasena; he thus enjoyed a divine-like royal household life for nine thousand years.

[ 195 ] Renunciation.

While he was thus enjoying life Princess Vijitasenā gave birth to a son, Nanduttara by name. Having seen the four omens he put on various garments, perfume, flowers, etc., and being surrounded by his fourfold army he went to the garden on foot. Having taken off his ornaments and handed them over to his Treasurer, he cut off his hair with his own sword and threw it up into the sky.

Sakka, King of Devas, received it in a golden casket and built a shrine of seven kinds of jewels over it, three yojanās in height, in Tāvatiṃsa (on Mount Meru). Donning the robes offered by the Brahma, the Bodhisatta became a recluse in that very garden. Following his example a hundred thousand men also became recluses.

(A noteworthy point here is: other Bodhisattas saw the omens while they were taking a trip to the royal garden to amuse themselves. On seeing the omens they were stirred by samvega and went forth not to the usual resort of the royal garden but to a remote region of forests and hills to renounce the world. The sight of seeing the omens and the locality of their renunciation were two different places. Because of a considerable distance between the two they had to take some forms of conveyance a vehicle such as an elephant, a horse, a chariot, etc.

But in the case of Buddha Nārada, it is to be noted that it was the royal garden where he came across the signs and it was the very garden where he stayed after renunciation. The Commentary says that Dhanañjaya garden was just outside the city.)

Enlightenment.

Buddha Nārada practised dukkaracariya in the garden for seven days; on the full-moon of Vesakha, the day he was going to attain Enlightenment, he partook of the milk-rice offered by Princess Vijitasenā and spent the daytime in the same garden; in the evening he left behind all his followers and went alone to the Bodhi Tree; on [ 196 ] the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass from Sudassana the gardener; as soon as he spread out the grass at the foot of a great Sona tree there arose the Aparajita seat of fifty-seven cubits in extent. Sitting crosslegged on the seat the Bodhisatta put forth-energy of four levels, dispelled Māra's forces and attained Omniscience, becoming Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, Lord of the three worlds.

(The Buddhavaṃsa Commentary has this to say with regard to Narada Buddha's Bodhi Tree, a great Sona tree; "The great Sona tree was ninety cubits high; it has a round smooth trunk; it possessed many forks and branches, dense and abundant foliage in dark green, closely knitted shade; as it was guarded by a spirit no birds could made it their resort; it was honoured as through it were a monarch among trees on the surface of the earth; it was full of branches adorned with red flowers, very delightful and pleasing to the eye. It thus served as an Elixir to those human and devas who saw it.)

Three occasions of Buddha's teaching. (Dhammabhisamava)

After he had attained Buddhahood, Buddha Narada passed fortynine days in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree; having accepted the Brahma's request for teaching he contemplated whom he should teach first. Then he saw his companions in renunciation being endowed with meritorious qualities conducive to attainment of the Path and Fruition in. After reflecting on their residence he came to know that they were staying in Dhananjaya Park. Accordingly he took his bowl and robe and journeyed immediately through the air to the park.

At that time the hundred thousand monks saw the Buddha coming from a distance. With faithful hearts they welcomed the Buddha, took over his bowl and robe, prepared a seat for him, paid their respects to him and took their appropriate seats around the Buddha. Being surrounded thus Buddha Nārada taught the hundred thousand crores of his monks the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta amidst the audience of humans, Devas and Brahmas as did the [ 197 ] former Buddhas; On that occassion one hundred crores of humans, Devas and Brahmas realized the supreme Dhamma of the Path and Fruition.

(This is the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

Once a Nāga king called Dona was ruling on the banks of Gaṅgā near the city of Mahādona. He was powerful, held in esteem and honour. If the local inhabitants did not propitate him with an offering, he destroyed the locality either by total drought or by extremely heavy rainfall or by a rain of pebbles.

Then Buddha Narada who had realized the other shore, of Nibbāna, foresaw a large number of people who would definitely attain the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna, as they were endowed with the merits of their past deeds qualifying them for such attainments if he would go and tame the Nāga King; accordingly, being accompanied by monks he travelled to the residence of the Nāga King.

When the people saw the Buddha they requested him saying: "Glorious Buddha, here lives a Nāga King, who is terribly venomous and mighty reigning terror in this region. Please do not come here last you should get hurt." The Buddha nevertheless went as though he did not hear their entreaty and sat down on the flowers spread in honour of the Nāga King.

The people then assembled, thinking: "We shall now see a battle between the Buddha, Lord of sages, and Dona the Nāga King." On seeing the Buddha sitting on the seat of flowers prepared for him, the Nāga King could not control his anger and made himself visible with emission of smoke. Using his psychic power the Buddha also emitted forth smoke in return. Again when the Nāga king sent forth blazing flames the Buddha sent back blazing flames by his power. The Nāga King became so severely affected by the flames from the Buddha he was not able to stand the suffering. Thinking, "I will kill the great monk by means of venom," the Nāga King discharged venom.

[ 198 ] Althrough the Nāga King's poisonous discharge was so virulent that it could destroy the whole of Jambudipa, it was powerless to disturb a single hair on the Buddha's body. "How is the great monk?" wondered the Nāga King, "What is his condition?". When he surveyed thus he saw the Buddha with a face so serene and bright with the six rays like the sun and the full round moon in the month of Kattikā of the autumnal season. Then he thought to himself: "This great monk is indeed powerful. Knowing not my own ability, I have wronged him," and took refuge in the Buddha. After taming the Nāga King thus the Buddha displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire in order to arouse pious faith in the multitude gathered there. At that time ninety-thousand crores of humans and Devas were established in Arahantship.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time Buddha Nārada instructed his son, Prince Nanduttara. Eighty-thousand Devas and humans attained the supreme Dhamma of the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three occasions of the meetings of Narada Buddha's Disciples. The first occasion took place in the city of Thullakoṭṭhita, where the two Brahmin youths future Chief Disciples, Bhaddasāla and Vijitamitta, encountered Buddha Nārada who was seated boldly in the middle of a gathering; they were looking for the 'great pool of deathless Dhamma'. When the two youths saw the thirty-two marks of a superman on the body of the Buddha they concluded: "This man indeed is a Buddha who has removed the veil of ignorance in the world." Developing faith in the Buddha they became monks with their followers. After their establishment in Arahantship the Buddha recited Ovāda Pātimokkha in the midst of a hundred thousand crores of monks.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

[ 199 ] At another time at an assembly of his relatives Buddha Nārada related his life story with an introduction beginning from the episode of his aspiration for Buddhahood. Ninety-thousand crores of Arahants then met.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

At another time a Nāga King, Verocana by name, who had developed great faith in the Buddha on the occasion of the Buddha's taming of the Nāga King, Mahadona, created a huge pavilion of jewels, three gāvutas in size and let the Buddha and his retinue of monks stay inside the pavilion. He also invited his courtiers together with the people of the district to visit his pavilion. Presenting a concert of Naga dancers in various costumes and ornaments he held a resounding ceremony of reverence, and performed a great almsgiving to the Buddha and his company of bhikkhus.

After finishing the meal, the Buddha gave a sermon in appreciation of the alms-food. Listening to the sermon the people developed faith in the Buddha and asked for monkhood. The Buddha then uttered, "Come monks," and they all became "Ehi bhikkhus." In the midst of eight million Ehi bhikkhus, the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sanNipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as a hermit received prophecy from Buddha Nārada.

At that time our Bodhisatta was a hermit who founded an hermitage in the Himalayas and lived there having mastered the five Abhiññās and the eight Samāpattis. Out of compassion for Bodhisatta hermit, Buddha Narada visited the hermitage in the company of eighty crores of lay disciples who were all Anāgāmīs.

The noble hermit was glad to see the Buddha; he then created another residence for the Buddha and his bhikkhus. The whole night the hermit extolled the Buddha relating all his attributes and listened to his sermon. The next morning he went to the Northern Continent (by his psychic power) and brought back cooked rice and other kinds of food which he offered to the Buddha and his followers of bhikkhus and lay disciples.

[ 200 ] In this way the Bodhisatta offered food for seven days, after which he paid homage to the Buddha with priceless red sandalwood from the Himalayas. Then Buddha Narada after delivering a sermon, prophesied: "A Buddha you will certainly become in future."

After hearing the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta became very happy and resolved to fulfil the Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Narada Buddha.

Buddha Narada's birthplace was Dhaññavatī city; his father was the Universal Monarch Sudeva and his mother Queen Anomā.

He reigned for nine thousand years; his three palaces were Jita, Vijita and Abhirāma.

His Chief Consort was Vijitasenā who had forty-three thousand maids of honour and his son Nanduttara.

Seeing the four omens he went forth on foot without taking a vehicle. He practised dukkaracariya for seven days.

His two Chief Disciples were Bhaddasāla Thera and Vijitamitta Thra. His attendant was Vāseṭṭha Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Uttarā Therī and Phaggunī Theri; His Bodhi Tree was a great Soṇa tree.

His noble lay attendants were the wealthy Uggarinda and Vasabha; his noble female attendants were Indāvarī Upāsikā and Vaṇdī (Gaṇḍi) Upāsikā.

Buddha Narada's height was eighty-eight cubits; he was dignified in the ten-thousand world-system of jātikhetta like a column of gold erected as an object of honour; besides, rays issued here and there from his body and extended for a yojana day and night without interruption.

[ 201 ] While Buddha Narada was alive, because of the dazzling brilliance of the Buddha's rays people living within a yojana did not have to light torches.

The life-span during Narada Buddha's time was ninety thousand; he lived throughout the period equal to four-fifths of the life-span, rescuing beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsāric waters to lace them on Nibbānic shores.

As the sky is exquisitely beautiful with stars and planets, so was Buddha Nārada's dispensation with noble Arahants.

For those (other than Arahants) who remained worlding and trainees (sekkhas), the Buddha constructed the huge strong bridge of Magga to cross over the samsāric current easily having done all his tasks as a Buddha, he attained Parinibbana with his several Arahant-Disciples.

Samvega.

Buddha Nārada who was equal only to peerless Buddhas and the Arahants who are endowed with matchless glory had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

Thus Buddha Nārada, conqueror of the five Maras, attained Parinibbāna in the city of Sudassana. In that very city was erected a cetiya four yojanās in height dedicated to Buddha Nārada.

Here ends Nārada Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 202 ] 10. PADUMUTTARA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

(One-Buddha aeon is Sāra, two Manda and three Vara; Sāramanda denotes four while Bhaddaka five;

If not a single Buddha appears, the aeon is Suñña.

This implies that an aeon in which only one Buddha appears is called Sāra-Kappa; two Buddhas, Manda-kappa; three Buddhas, VaraKappa; five Buddhas; Bhadda-Kappa; that in which no Buddha appears at all is called Suñña-Kappa. The aeon in which three Buddhas such as Anomadassi Buddha, Paduma Buddha and Narada Buddha appeared is therefore Vara-Kappa.)

After the Vara-Kappa in which appeared the Buddhas Anomadassī, Paduma and Nārada had come to an end incalculable aeons (one asankhyeyya) passed. Then in one kappa, a hundred thousand aeons before the present one, there appeared Padumuttara Buddha.

(This particular aeon was Sāra-Kappa as Buddha Padumutta alone appeared then, yet it resembled a Manda Kappa of two Buddhas because of its delightful features. In the aeon to which Buddha Padumuttara belonged there lived only people who abounded in meritoriousness.)

The Chronicle of Buddha's Padumuttara appearance is this: having completed his fulfilment of the Perfections Bodhisatta Padumuttara was reborn in Tusita following the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having agreed to the entreaty of Devas and Brahmas he descended to the human abode and was conceived in the womb of sujātā, Queen of King Ananda, in the city of Hamsavati. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in the royal garden of Hamsavati.

When Prince Padumuttara was born a rain of Paduma lotuses fell and his relatives gave him the name of Padumuttara.

[ 203 ] Royal household life.

When he came of age he enjoyed the divine-like royal household life living for ten thousand years in three palaces such as Naravahana, Yasavahana and Vasavatti and being entertained and served by one hundred and twenty thousand female attendants headed by his Chief Consort Vasudatta.

Renunciation.

While he was thus living the royal household life, Princess Vasudatta gave birth to a son named Uttara; having seen the four omens he resolved to undertake the noble task of renunciation. No sooner had he thus resolved than Vasavatti Palace rotated thoroughly like a potter's wheel and rose up to the sky; then it moved on its course like the moon and other heavenly bodies and descended onto the ground with the Bodhi Tree at its centre.

The Bodhisatta got down from the palace and put on the lotus robes offered by the Brahma and became a recluse at that very place. The palace returned to the city and stood at its original site. Except womanfolk, all those who accompanied the Bodhisatta also turned themselves into recluses.

Enlightenment.

Buddha Padumuttara practised dukkaracariya with his companions for seven days; on the full-moon day of Vesakha, the day of his Enlightenment, he ate the milk-rice offered by Rucananda, daughter of the local wealthy man of Ujjeni Nigama; having passed the daytime in a sala grove he went alone in the evening to the Bodhi Tree; on the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by a heretic named Sumitta and as soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the Bodhi Tree, Salala there arose the Aparājita Pallanka measuring thirty-eight cubits; sitting crosslegged on the pallanka he mustered up his energy of four levels and dispelled Mara's forces; he acquired Pubbenivasa Ñana in the first watch of the night, Dibbacakkhu Nāna in the middle watch and contemplated the Paticcasamuppāda Dhamma in the third watch. After contemplating it, the Bodhisatta emerged from the fourth [ 204 ] Jhāna of respiration, and viewed the five aggregates with their characteristics; by means of the knowledge of rise and fall (Udayabbaya Ñāna) of all (conditioned) things he contemplated the impermanent in fifty modes¹¹,and developed Vipassanā insight up to Gotrabhū Ñāna, Knowledge of overcoming worldly ties; through the Ariya Magga he realized all the attributes of Buddhas (i.e. he attained Buddhahood) and uttered the verse of elation, "Anekajati samsāram.....tanhānam khayamajjhagā", an utterance made customarily by all Buddhas.

No sooner had the Bodhisatta become a Buddha than a rain of lotuses fell as though to adorn every thing in the ten-thousand world-system.

What is particularly noteworthy is:

After becoming an Enlightened One, Buddha Padumuttara stayed absorbed in the Phalasamāpatti for seven days under the Bodhi Tree (in the first week); on the eighth day he thought he would set his foot on the ground, and as he was trying to put down his fight foot on the ground, paduma lotuses which normally flower in water miraculously pushed through the earth and appeared under his feet.

Each lotus leaf measured nine cubits, each stamen filament holding pollen thirty cubits, each another twelve cubits and each bloom had pollen that would fill nine waterjars.

Buddha Padumuttara was fifty-eight cubits tall; the measurement between the two arms was eighteen cubits; that of his forehead five cubits and that of each hand and leg [ 205 ] eleven cubits. As his leg of eleven cubits trod on the another pollen of twelve cubits, about nine jar-fulls of pollen rose up and spread all over his body of fifty eight cubits in height as though powder of red ointment and sulphuret of arsenic was sprinkled on it. On account of this particular happening the Buddha was renowned as Buddha Padumuttara.

(This was the description made by reciters of the Samyutta Nilāya.)

Three occasion of the Buddha's teaching (Dhammābhisamaya).

Having attained Buddhahood, Buddha Padumuttara stayed near the Mahā Bodhi (Salala) Tree for seven weeks; and having accepted the Brahma's request he thought of whom he should teach first and saw Prince Devala and Prince Sujata (Future Chief Disciples) who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna. Then he thought of their whereabouts and came to know that they were staying in Mithilā. Accordingly taking his bowl and robe, the Buddha immediately travelled an aerial journey to the garden of Mithilā City.

Buddha Padumuttara then sent the gardener for the two princes, who discussed thus among themselves "Our uncle's son Prince Padumuttara after becoming a Buddha has come to our place of Mithila city. We shall now go and see him." Then they approached the Buddha with their retinues and sat down at suitable places.

Buddha Padumuttara appeared resplendent with the princes waiting upon him like the full moon attended upon by stars, and taught the audience of Devas and humans led by the princes the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta that was customerily delivered by all previous Buddhas. At that time a hundred thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time when Sarada the Hermit, who appeared before Buddha Padumuttara was teaching his followers some evil doctrine, that would lead to rebirth in woeful states, the Buddha went to Sarada's assembly and taught numerous people his Dhamma, giving [ 206 ] them illustrations of dangers of rebirth in niraya (abode of intense suffering). At that time thirty-seven hundred thousand Devas and humans including the disciples of Sarada attained the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time the Buddha's father, King Ānanda sent twenty ministers with twenty thousand men to bring back Buddha Padumuttara, who was staying at Mithilā, to his home city Hamsavatī (the way King Suddhodana did for his son Buddha Gotama.) On arriving in the presence of the Buddha in Mithila, the twenty ministers and their twenty thousand men were called "Come, O monks' by the Buddha after giving them a sermon. They all therefore became ehi bhikkhus. Accompanied by them all he travelled to Hamsavati and stayed in the city to up-lift the royal father spiritually.

Like our Buddha Gotama who visited Kapilavatthu and narrated the Chronicle of Buddhas in the assembly of his relatives, Buddha Padumuttara taught Buddhavaṃsa in the midst of his relatives while walking on the jewel walk in the sky. At that time five million Devas and humans attained the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples meeting (sannipāta).

The meetings of Padumuttara's Disciples, took place also three times. At the first meeting of a hundred thousand crores of bhikkhus on the full-moon day of the month of Magha, the Buddha recited Ovāda Pātimokkha in the garden nearby also named Mithila

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At another time after keeping vassa on Mount Vebhāra the Buddha taught numerous people who had come to see him; on being called by the Buddha "Come O monks", ninety crores of them became ehi bhikkhus. At the meeting of these bhikkhus the Buddha recited Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

[ 207 ] Still at another time Buddha Padumuttara, Lord of the three worlds, while travelling in order to help multitudes of people get free from the bonds of defilements, recited Ovāda Pātimokkha at the meeting of eighty thousand monks, who as lay men had gone forth in renunciation from various villages, market-towns, districts and countries.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as a governer received prophecy from Buddha Padumuttara.

At that time our Future Buddha Gotama was Jatila, governor of a province and rich by the crore; he performed a great alms-giving of food and clothing-material to the Saṃgha with the Buddha at its head. At the end of the sermon delivered in appreciation of the almsgiving, the Buddha prophesied of the governor: "A hundred thousand aeons from now this man will certainly become a Buddha named Gotama."

On hearing the Buddha' s prophecy the Bodhisatta was extremely happy and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

Unsual features of Buddha Padumuttara's Dispensation.

When Buddha Padumuttara appeared, the opposing heretics holding wrong views, were unhappy, distressed, powerless and fading away. They received no respect, no generosity and the like even from a few people; in fact, they were driven out of the country.

Then the heretics met together and approached the Buddha with these words: "Most energetic, heroic, Venerable Sir, may you be our Refuge."

The Compassionate Buddha Padumuttara established the heretics who had come to him, in the Three Refuges together with the observance of the five precepts.

[ 208 ] In this way the Dispensation of Buddha Padumuttara was free of heretics holding wrong views. It was indeed marvellous with Arahants who were accomplished in the five kinds of mastery, who were not affected by (vicissitudes) of the world and who had the virtues of sīla, samādhi, paññā and khantī.

Particulars: of Buddha Padumuttara.

Padumuttara Buddha's birthplace was Hamsavati City; his father was King Ananda and his mother Queen Sujātā.

He reigned for ten thousand years; his three palaces were Naravāhana, Yasavahana and Vasavattī.

His Chief Consort was Vasudatta who was attended upon by forty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Uttara.

(The number of the maids is given as a hundred and twenty thousand in the section on 'royal household life' but here it is mentioned as forty-three thousand; the two numbers therefore seems inconsistent. It should be noted, however, that the former was the total number of maids serving the Princess the latter was the number of maids in each batch that waited upon the Princess at a time.)

The vehicle during his renunciation after seeing the four omens was a palace; he pratised dukkaracariya for seven days.

His two Chief Disciples were Devala Thera and Sujāta Thera; his attendant was Sumanā Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Amitā Therī and Asama Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a salala tree.

His noble lay attendants were the wealthy men, Vitiṇṇa and Tissa; his noble female attendants were Haṭṭhā Upāsikā and Vicittā Upāsikā.

Buddha Padumuttara's height was fifty-eight cubits; endowed with thirty-two marks of a superman, he was like a column of gold erected as an object of worship.

[ 209 ] The rays issuing from the Buddha's body cannot be hindered by gates, doors, walls, trees, high and huge earthen hills, rocky mountains and the like; in fact, the rays shone forth within the surrounding area of twelve yojanās.

The life-span during Buddha Padumuttara's time was a hundred thousand years; he lived for eighty thousand years, (four-fifths of the life-span) and rescued many beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas-from the currents of samsara to place them on the shores of Nibbāna.

Samvega.

Having eradicated all kinds of doubt in beings whom he conveyed to Nibbāna, Buddha Padumuttara with his bhikkhu disciples, attained the end of his existence (just as a great mass of fire became extinct after burning brightly)!

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Padumuttara, Conqueror of the five Māras, attained Parinibbāna in Nanda Park. In the park (as has been said before) the cetiya dedicated to him was twelve yojanās in height.

Here ends Padumuttara Buddhavaṃsa.

11. SUMEDHA Buddhavaṃsa.

After the lapse of the aeon in which Buddha Padumuttara appeared, there passed seventy thousand Suñña Kappas devoid of Buddhas; in one kappa three thousand aeons; before present one these appeared two Buddhas: Sumedha and Sujāta. (It was a Manda Kappa.)

Of these two Buddhas, the former, Sumedha, as a Bodhisatta, on complete fulfilment of the Perfections was, reborn in Tusita following the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having accepted the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended [ 210 ] to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Sudatta, Queen of King Sudatta. When ten months had passed the Bodhisatta was born in Sudassana royal gardens.

Royal household life.

When he came of age Prince Sumedha lived in three palaces, namely, Sucandana, Kancana and Sirivaddhana, entertained and served by his Chief Consort Sumanā and her forty-eight thousand maids of honour thus enjoying a divine-like royal household life for nine thousand years.

Renunciation.

While he was thus living a royal houehold life, Princess Sumanā gave birth to a son named Punabbasu, having seen the four omens, he renounced the world riding an elephant and because a recluse. Following his example, one hundred croses of men became recluses.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Bodhisatta Sumedha observed dukkaracariya with the hundred crores of recluses for fifteen days (for eight months according to the Sinhalese version). On the day of his Enlightenment, the full-moon day of Vesakha, he ate the milk-rice offered by Nakula, daughter of a wealthy man of Nakula village, and spent the daytime in the local sala grove. In the evening leaving his companions, he went alone (to the Bodhi Tree), and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass from a heretic named Sirivaddhana. As soon as he spread the grass under the Mahā Bodhi (Mahanipa ) there appeared the Aparājita Pallaṅka of fifty-seven cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the Pallaṅka the Bodhisatta mustered his energy of four levels, dispelled Māra's forces and attained the state of a Buddha, Omniscient, and Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, Lord of the three worlds.

[ 211 ] Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

Having attained Buddhahood Buddha Sumedha stayed near the Mahā Bodhi for seven weeks; agreeing to the entreaty made by the Brahma, he saw his younger half brothers, Princes Sarana and Sabbakama (future Chief Disciples), and also the hundred crores of recluses, who were his companions in renunciation. He then went through the space immediately to their residence of Sudassana royal gardens near the city of Sudassana.

On seeing the Buddha from a distance the hundred crores of recluses with faithful heart welcomed, taking his bowl and robe, prepared his seat, paid repects and took their seats around the Buddha. Then the Buddha sent the gardener for his brothers Princes Sarana and Sabhakama and taught the Dhammacakka-pavattana Discourse to them all including Devas and humans, who had come to listen him. At that time one hundred thousand crores of Devas and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time, having entered into engaged in Mahakaruna samapatti, "attainment of great compassion" in the morning and surveyed the beings who were ripe for liberation Buddha Sumedha saw a yakkha named Kumbhakanna, a man-eating demon who revealed his terrible appearance at an entrance of a thick forest making the forest tracks deserted; taking nobody, Buddha Sumedha went alone to the yakkha's dwelling and, after entering it, sat down on a prepared seat.

Then Kumbhakanna became furious like an extremely poisonous snake struck with a stick and, to threaten the Buddha, he assumed a horrible shape with his head like a mountain, with his eyes opened wide and bright like sunrays: his long and broad fangs like ploughshares; his belly skin (dark blue), flabby and pendulus; his nose concave in the middle, convex at its base and tip and terrifyingly ugly; his mouth wide and reddened like a mountain cavity his hair thick, tawny and rough; in this most terrible appearance he stood before the Buddha, breathing forth smoke and flames towards him and showered on him rain of rocks, rain of mountains, fire, hot water, hot mud, hot ashes, arms, burning coal, and hot [ 212 ] sand; despite this rain of ninefold weapons, the yakkha was unable to ruffle even a single hair on the Buddha's body. Thinking to himself, "I will kill him by asking a question" he put a question like the yakkha Ālavaka¹², to the Buddha by successfully tackling the yakkha's question Sumedha Buddha tamed him.

On the second day which happened to be, the day the ruler of a nearby country was supposed to sacrifice his son to the yakkha, the countrymen brought cart-loads of food and offered it together with the prince to the yakkha. But the yakkha offered the Buddha the prince whom he was to devour. Having heard the good news the people who were waiting at the entrance of the forest approached the Buddha. In that assembly Buddha Sumedha gave the yakkha a suitable sermon and helped ninety thousand crores of beings attain the knowledge of the Path.

(This was the second Dhammabhisamaya.)

Still on another occassion on Buddha Sumedha taught the FourNoble Truths to Devas and humans in the gardens of Sirinandana near the city of Upakari. At that time eighty thousand crores of them attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammabhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples meeting (sanNipāta).

There were three sanNipāta, meetings of Buddha Sumedha's Disciples. At the first meeting the Buddha was in the city of Sudassana. Then one hundred crores of Arahants happened to have congregated.

(This was the first sanNipāta.)

[ 213 ] At another time the Buddha kept vassa on Mount Deva. When kathina ceremony was held after the vassa ninety crores of monks assembled.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time the Buddha set out on a journey. Then the eighty crores of monks who followed the Buddha on his journey met.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as the youth Uttara received prophecy from Buddha Sumedha

At that time our Bodhisatta was a young man named Uttara which means one who excels all others in virtues; he gave the Saṅgha headed by the Buddha his wealthy of eighty crores accumulated at his residence. After hearing the Buddha's sermon he was established in the three Refuges and became monk in the Dispensation of the Buddha. When the discourse given in appreciating of the offering was over, the Buddha uttered the prophecy; "This young man Uttara will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama in future."

Hearing the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta was overjoyed and resolved to fulfil the Perfections even more.

Uttara became a monk and shouldered his religious responsibilities and accomplished in studying the Buddha's ninefold teaching of Suttas and Vinaya, thus promoting the splendour of his Dispensation.

Mindfully cultivating and developing his virtues as a monk in three postures of sitting, standing and walking (but entirely without lying down) he reached not only the eight attainments but the apex of the five psychic powers and on his death was reborn in the Brahma abode.

[ 214 ] Particulars of Buddha Sumedha.

Buddha Sumedha's birthplace was Sudassana; his father was King Sudatta and his mother Queen Sudatta.

He reigned for nine thousand years; his three palaces were Sucandana, Kañcana and Sirivaḍḍhana.

His Chief Consort was Sumanā having eighty-four thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Punabbasu.

His two Chief Disciples were Saraṇa Thera and Sabbakāma Thera; his attendant was Sāgara Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Rama Theri and Surama Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a Mahānīpa tree.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy persons, Uruvela and Yasavā; his noble female supporters were Yasodharā Upāsikā and Sirimā Upāsikā.

His height was eighty-eight cubits; the rays emanating from his body spread all over the directions like the moon lighting up the sky and its stars.

Or, the Buddha's body rays spread everywhere in the area of one yojana like the Universal Monarch's ruby shining all around to the extent of a yojana.

The life-span during Buddha Sumedha's time was ninety thousand years; he lived throughout for four-fifths of the life-spans and rescued such beings as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsāric waters to place them on Nibbānic shores.

Buddha Sumedha's Dispensation witnessed numerous Noble Arahants (Arahants were everwhere in his Dispensation) who were endowed with the threefold Knowledge and the sixfold Psychic Power, who were possessed of energy, who were undisturbed by the vicissitude of the world, who had the ability to view things, pleasant or unpleasant, in one and the same manner.

[ 215 ] Those Noble Arahants of incomparable fame were all liberated from defilements and free of four upadhis, bases of existence; the Arahants who were the Buddha's disciples having large retinues shed the light of their wisdom and attained peaceful Nibbāna.

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Sumedha, Conqueror of the five Maras, attained Parinibbana in the gardens of Medha. As has been said before the relics dispersed in accordance with his resolve and existed all over Jambudipa being honoured by beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Sumedha Buddhavaṃsa.

12. SUJĀTA Buddhavaṃsa.

After Buddha Sumedha had attained Parinibbana, the life-span of human beings gradually decreased from ninety thousand years down to ten and then it increased up to asankhyeyya. When the lifespan reached ninety thousand years on its next decrease Bodhisatta Sujata was reborn in Tusita on complete fulfilment of the Perfections in the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having agreed to the entreaty of Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha he descended to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Pabhavati of King Uggaha in the city of Sumangala. Ten months thereafter the Bodhisatta was born.

On his naming day wise men who were to give him a name, named him Sujata on account of the fact that at the time of his birth all the people in Jambudipa experienced both physical and mental happiness.

Royal household life.

When he came of age he lived in three palaces, namely Siri, Upasiri and Nanda, being entertained and served by Princess Sirinanda and her twenty-three thousand maids of honour for nine thousand years.

[ 216 ] Renunciation.

When the Bodhisatta had seen the four omens and when Princess Sirinanda had given birth to a son named Upasena, he went forth in renunciation riding the state steed name Hamsavāha and became a recluse. A crore of men were inspired and became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Bodhisatta Sujata practised dukkaracariya with that crore of recluses for nine months. On the full-moon day of Vesakha, the day of his Enlightenment, he ate the milk-rice offered by the daughter of the wealthy man Sirinandana of the city of Sirinandana and spent the daytime in the local sāla grove. In the evening he proceeded alone to the Mahā Bodhi, accepted on the way eight handfuls of grass offered by Sunanda the Heretic. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the Bodhi Tree, Mahā veḷu there rose the Aparājita Pallañka measuring thirty-three cubits on which he sat cross-legged and mustered his energy of four levels and dispelled Mara and his army and attained Omniscient, Perfectly Self Enlighted Buddhahood, state of the Chief of the three worlds.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

Having attained Buddhahood, and stayed in the neighbourhood of Mahā Bodhi for forty-nine days the Buddha accepted the Brahmas's request and contemplated as to whom he should teach first; then he saw his (half) younger brother Prince Sudassana and his Purohita's son, youthful Sudeva, who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna. Resolving to teach them first he immediately traveled through space to Sumangala Park near Sumangala City and sent the gardener for the Prince Sudassana and the youth Sudeva. To the audience of Devas and humans headed by the two, the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka pavattana Sutta that was taught by previous Buddhas as a rule. At that time eighty crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 217 ] At another time Buddha Sujata defeated the heretics by displaying the Twin Miracle of water and fire near the sala tree close to the gate of Sudassana Royal Park, and while observing vassa on the emerald stone slab placed at the foot of Pāricchattaka tree in Sakka's abode of Tāvatiṃsa, the Buddha taught the Abhidhammā. On that occasion of the Abhidhammā teaching, three million seven hundred thousand of Devas and Brahmas attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time Buddha Sujāta paid a visit to his father in the city of Sumañgala. Then six million Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciple's meeting (Sannipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Sujāta's Disciples: the first was at Sudhamma near Sudhammavatī City where the Buddha taught people who had come to him, admitted six million men into the Order by calling them "Ehi bhikkhu", and recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha amidst them.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At another time when Buddha Sujāta descended form Tāvatiṃsa, a meeting of five million monks took place.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time when the Chief Disciple, Sudassana Thera, who sat on the right side of the Buddha took four hundred thousand men to the Buddha the men had decided among themselves to go forth on hearing that "the Buddha's younger brother Prince Sudassana had become a monk in the presence of the Buddha and had attained Arahantship and were thus inspired. The Buddha gave them instructions, made them Ehi bhikkhus and recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha at their meeting of four features.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 218 ] Future Buddha Gotama as Universal Monarch received prophecy from Buddha Sujata.

At that time our Bodhisatta was a Universal Monarch; hearing that there had appeared a Buddha in the world he approached the Buddha, listened to the Dhamma discourse, offered his kingship with his seven treasures to the Saṃgha led by the Buddha with the Buddha at its head and became a monk. The inhabitants of Jambudipa made themselves monastery-keepers (monastic attendants), collected taxes from his domain and constantly supplied the Buddha and his Saṃgha with the four requisites of robes, food, shelter and medicines.

Then Buddha Sujata made a prophecy: "He will indeed become a Buddha in future."

Having received the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta was most rejoiced and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

He joined the Saṃgha of Buddha Sujata and became accomplished in the studies of the Buddha's teachings which are of nine divisions together with the Sutta and Vinaya. Thus he contributed to the beauty of the Buddha's Dispensation.

Having cultivated the practice of Brahma Vihāra Bhāvanā, meditation leading to rebirth in the Brahma abode, without absentmindedness in three postures of sitting, standing and walking (but not in the posture of lying down), he reached the apex not only of the eight attainments but also of the five Psychic Powers, and on his death was reborn in the world of Brahmas.

Particulars of Buddha Sujāta.

Buddha Sujata's birthplace was Sumangala City; his father was King Uggata and his mother Queen Pabhāvati.

He reigned for nine thousand years; his three palaces were Siri, Upasiri and Nanda.

[ 219 ] His Chief Consort was Sirinandā who had twenty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Upasena.

He renounced the world, riding a horse, after seeing the four omens; he practised dukkaracariya for nine months.

His two Chief Disciples were Sudassana Thera and Sudeva Thera; his attendant was Nārada Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Nāgā Theri and Nagasamālā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was Mahavelu (a great bamboo plant).

(The bamboo plant had a massive trunk; its leaves were so luxuriant that there was no space to let the sunlight go through; it was pleasant to look at, straight and big and thus attractive. It grew from one stem and from that one stem came out branches very beautiful like the feathers of a peacock's tail well tied together. The bamboo plant had absolutely no thorns; its branches spread out in the four directions and were not so sparse, thus providing a delightful, cool and dense shade.)

His noble lay attendants were the wealthy men Sudatta and Citta; his noble female lay attendants were Subhaddā Upāsikā and Paduma Upāsikā.

Buddha Sujāta's height was fifty cubits; he was endowed with all the good physical qualities.

Buddha Sujāta's physical rays (resembling those of past incomparable Buddhas) emanated from various parts of the Buddha's body towards all directions as much as he desired. They could not be likened to any thing; they were beyond all comparisons.

The life-span during the time of Buddha Sujata was ninety thousand years, and living for four-fifths of the life-span, the Buddha saved beings--humans, Devas and Brahmas--from the currents of samsāra to place them on the shores of Nibbāna.

[ 220 ] Just as the rising waves look wonderful in the ocean, like the stars and planets twinkling and shining look marvellous in the sky, even so Buddha Sujata's Dispensation shone forth with Arahants.

Samvega.

That Buddha Sujāta who was to be likened to past peerless Buddhas and the attributes of that peerless Buddha Sujata had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Sujāta, Conqueror of the five Māras, attained Parinibbana in Silarama Park. In that very park (as has been said before) the cetiya dedicated to him was three gāvutas high.

Here ends Sujāta Buddhavaṃsa

13. PIYADASSI Buddhavaṃsa.

When the aeon in which Buddha Sujata appeared had come to an end and one thousand eight hundred aeons ago, in a certain (Vara) aeon there appeared three Buddhas, namely, Piyadassī, Atthadassī and Dhammadassī. The story of Piyadassī, the first of these three, is as follows.

On completion of his fulfilment of the Perfections, Bodhisatta Piyadassī was reborned in Tusita in the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having agreed to the entreaty of Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Candā, Queen of King Sudatta in the city of Sudhannavati; when ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in the garden named Varuna.

The Bodhisatta was given the name of Piyadassī as delightful miracles were manifest to multitudes of people on his naming day.

[ 221 ] Royal household life.

When the Bodhisatta came of age he lived in three palaces of Sunimmala, Vimala and Giriguha, being entertained and served by Princess Vimalā and her thirty-three thousand maids of honour for nine thousand years and thus enjoying a divine like royal household life.

Renunciation.

After seeing the four omens and after Princess Vimalā had given birth to a son named Kancanavela, he went forth in a chariot drawn by thoroughbred steeds. A crore of men were inspired and became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With that crore of recluses Bodhisatta Piyadassī practised dukkaracariya for six months; on the full-moon day of Vesakha, the day of his Enlightenment, he partook of the milk-rice offered by the daughter of Brahmin Vasabha, resident of the Brahmins' village of Varuna and spent the daytime in the local sala grove and went alone to Mahā Bodhi in the evening; on the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Sujata the heretic; as soon as he spread the grass under the Bodhi Tree, kakudha there appeared the Aparājita Pallaṅka, measuring fifty-three cubits on which he sat crosslegged, and mustering his energy of four levels, he drove away Māra's forces and attained Omniscient, Perfectly Self-Enlightened Buddhahood, state of the Chief of the three worlds.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his Enlightenment, Buddha Piyadassī stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty nine days as has been stated in the story of previous Buddhas he discerned that the one crore of recluses who had renounced the world with him were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the attainment of the Path and Fruition. He then went immediately through space to [ 222 ] their residence and descended in the royal garden named after the nearby city of Usabhavati; being surrounded by the crore of recluses, he taught the Dhammaeakkapavattana Sutta in the tradition of previous Buddhas to Devas and Brahmas who had gathered there to listen to him.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

The Buddha's second teaching took place on the mountain of Sudassana near Usabhavati City. The god, Sudassana, of the mountain was then holding a wrong view. People living in Jambudipa annually brought food costing a hundred thousand pieces of money to offer to the god, who sitting side by side with the human king of Usabhavati was honoured by the whole continent.

(Things offered to gods or kings are called bali in Pāḷi; offering bali to gods is said to be 'feeding bali to gods'; giving it to kings is known as 'paying taxes'.)

At that time, thinking that he would remove Sudassana's wrong view, Buddha Piyadassī went to his mansion, while he was away at a meeting of yakkhas, got onto his splendid couch and stayed there issuing his rays of six colours like the sun appearing at the top of Yugandhara mountain in the month of Kattikā (October-November) in autumn Sudassana's retinue of gods honoured the Buddha with flowers, scents, unguent, etc., surrounding him.

On his return from the yakkhas' meeting, Sudassana saw the rays of six colours coming out from his mansion; he thought to himself, "Never have I seen before such splendour of divers brilliant colours. Who could be the person occupying my place? Is it a human being? Or a divine one?" On surveying he saw the Buddha with a network of rays of six colours like the autumnal sun rising from Mount Yugandhara. "This shaven-headed monk is staying on my luxurious bed being surrounded by members of my retinue" said Sudassana to himself with his heart tormented by anger. "Well, I shall display my physical might to this monk", so thinking he turned the whole mountain into a mass of blazing flames.

Having done so he inspected, wondering "whether the shavenheaded monk has become ashes in the flames", and saw the Buddha [ 223 ] with a serene face and a glorious body emitting brilliant lights because of the network of divers rays. "This monk can withstand the burning fire," thought he; "Well, I shall drown him in a huge flood of water." He then caused an immense mass of water to rush towards the mansion with a high speed. Those the Buddha was remaining in the mansion flooded with water, even a single thread of his robe or a single hair of his body did not get wet.

After that the yakkha king Sudassana contemplated another method by which he hoped the Buddha would be suffocated and killed; he brought the mass of water close to the Buddha, who appeared glorious in the greenish blue waters with all network of rays like the bright moon on the full-moon night of Kattika and seated being surrounded by Sudassana's courtiers. Unable to control his anger and thinking, "I shall put the great monk to death by all means," caused a rain of nine kinds of weapons fall on the Buddha. Because of the Buddha's great physic power all those weapons turned themselves into various beautiful and fragrant clusters and garlands of flowers and fell at his feet.

Seeing that miraculous phenomenon, Sudassana became far more resentful and violent (instead of getting awed with faith); he caught hold of the Buddha by the legs with his two hands and lifted him up. Then passing over the great ocean he rushed to the mountain ranges that mark the end of the Cakkavāla, for he wanted to rid his abode of the Buddha. "How is he? Is he dead or alive?" Thinking thus he looked at the Buddha and (as those in a dream) saw him remaining in his original seat in the mansion (as though in a dream). It then occurred to him thus: "Ah, this great monk is so powerful; I shall not be able to drag him out of my place. If somebody comes to know of what I am doing now it will be a disgrace to me. Therefore before anyone sees I shall go away, abandoning both the monk and the mansion."

At that moment the Buddha, knowing Sudassana's thoughts, resolved so that Devas and men could see him holding the Buddha's legs. In accordance with this resolve, Sudassana was unable to leave his abode (as he had planned) but remained there holding the Buddha's legs with both of his hands.

[ 224 ] That was the day when a hundred and one kings of the whole of Jambudipa gathered together to honour the yakkha king with bali offerings. The hundred and one kings saw Sudassana holding the Buddha's legs and marvelled at what they saw, exclaiming "Our king of yakkhas was massaging the legs of the king of recluses! Oh, Buddhas should be indeed marvelled at with the snapping of the fingers¹³. Oh, their attributes are indeed wonderful!" With their hearts inclined towards the Buddha they paid homage to the Buddha with their clapsed hands placed on their heads.

At that gathering Buddha Piyadassī gave Dhamma instructions to the audience with Sudassana at its head. Then ninety thousand crores of Devas and humans attained Arahantship.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time in the city of Kumuda which was nine yojanās in extent, its area being nine yojanās, the wicked monk Sona, opponent of Buddha Piyadassi (the counterpart of Devadatta in the lifetime of our Buddha Gotama), after consulting the king's son, Prince Mahapaduma, incited him to kill his father. After various attempts to have Buddha Piyadassī killed proved futile, he enticed the driver of the royal elephant, Donamukha by name, whom he gave instructions, saying:" When Buddha Piyadassī entered the city on alms-round, kill him by releasing Donamukha towards him."

Since the elephant-driver had no intelligence to judge what was beneficial and what was not, he thought thus: "This monk Sona is an intimate friend of the king. If he does not like me I could be dismissed from service." So he agreed to do so, and on the next day he managed to know the time when the Buddha would enter the city for alms-food. Then he went to Donamukha who was in a state of frenzy and made him, more intoxicated and sent him to kill the Buddha.

[ 225 ] As soon as he was let out, Donamukha crushed elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, men and women whom he encountered on the way, destroyed all buildings that were in his way, and like a cannibal-demon and he devoured up all the flesh of his preys in the noisy company of eagles, kites, crows and vultures. And finally, as soon as he saw the Buddha from a distance he rushed towards him with a high speed.

Then with their hearts that almost burst open with fear and anxiety, the citizens took to house-tops, walls, stone parapets, brick parapets, trees, etc., and on seeing the elephant who was rushing to the Buddha they' screamed, "Ah, Ah," and some of them even tried to stop the elephant in various ways. Seeing Donamukha, the king of elephant rushing towards him, the "Elephant of a Buddha¹⁴ with his tranquil heart diffusing intense compassion, permeated him sublime loving-kindness. Then Donamukha, his heart made tender with the permeation of the Buddha' s loving-kindness realized his wrongdoing and became so shameful that he could not stand in a natural manner before the Buddha and lay down with his head at the Buddha's feet as though he was about to sink into the earth.

Watching the event, the citizens were filled with joy and shouted in acclaim like the roar of a lion. They also honoured the elephant in various ways with highly fragrant flowers, sandal-wood powder, ornaments and so on. They even threw up their turbans and garments. Celestial drums were also beaten in the sky.

(Nālāgiri the elephant during the time of our Buddha Gotama was similarly tamed, and when he was respectfully lying before. the Buddha, people threw on him various adornments. which covered the whole of his body. From that [ 226 ] moment onwards Nālāgiri had been called Dhanapāla ('Keeper of Wealth'). Thereupon he walked backwards with respect and when he had entered his shed, it is said (in the Cūlahamsa Jātaka Commentary), the adornments went back to their respective original owners owing to the Buddha' s resolve. In the same way, when the people threw theirs on Donamukha, it should be taken that they were given as reward to the elephant.)

Then the Buddha stroked the head of the elephant lying prostrated at his feet and exhorted him with the words that suited his mentally. The elephant that has thus been exhorted regained his conscience and became so tamed that he looked like a disciple-monk of the Buddha disciplined in Vinaya. Having exhorted Donamukha the way Buddha Gotama exhorted Dhanapala, Buddha Piyadassi give a discourse in the midst of the people who had gathered there. At that time eighty thousand crores of people attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three meetings of the Disciples of the Buddha: on the first occasion when Buddha Piyadassī paid a visit to the city of Sumangala, the two friends-Prince Palita and the youth Sabbadassī, son of the king's Purohita, (both were future Chief Disciples)hearing of the Buddha' s visit to their city welcomed him with one hundred thousand crores of their retinue, listened to his sermon and gave alms for seven days. On the seventh day at the end of the Buddha's sermon given in appreciation of the meal, both of them with the hundred thousand crores of their followers became monks and attained Arahantship. In the midst of the monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the first sanNipāta.)

[ 227 ] At another time at the gathering where the divine-yakkha Sudassana was tamed ninety crores of men put on the robe and attained Arahantship. Being surrounded by those ninety crores of monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time on the occasion of taming of the elephant Donamukha eighty crores of men renounced the world and attained Arahantship. In the midst of those eighty crores of Arahals the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Brahmin Kassapa received prophecy from Buddha Piyadassi.

At that time our Future Buddha was a Brahmin youth, Kassapa by name, who was a complished in the three Vedas; having listened to the Buddha's teaching, he cultivated great faith and had a huge monastery built at the cost of one hundred thousand crores. He offered it to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha; rejoicing in his act of merit he took refuge in the Three Gems and kept the five precepts steadfastly lest he should become heedless.

Remaining in the midst of the Saṃgha, Buddha Piyadassi made the prophecy concerning the youth Kassapa: "One thousand eight hundred aeons from the present one, this youth Kassapa will become a Buddha indeed."

Having heard Buddha Piyadassi's prophecy, the Bodhisatta was extremely happy and determined to fulfil the Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Buddha Piyadassī.

Buddha Piyadassi's birthplace was Sudhāññavatī City; his father was King Sudatta and his mother Queen Candā.

He reigned for nine thousand years; his three palaces were Sunimmala, Vimala and Giriguhā.

His Chief Consort was Vimalā who had thirty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Kañcanavela.

The vehicle he used for his going forth after seeing the four omens was a chariot drawn by thoroughbreds; he practised dukkaracariya for six months.

[ 228 ] His two Chief Disciples were Palita Thera and Sabbadassi Thera; his attendant was Sobhita Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sujata Theri and Dhammadinna Theri; his Bodhi-Tree was a kakudha tree.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy men Sundaka and Dhammaka; his noble female lay Disciples were Visakhā Upasika and Dhammadinna Upasika.

Buddha Piyadassī had innumerable followers and good reputation; he was also endowed with thirty-two marks of a superman; his height was eighty cubits like a great sala tree in full bloom.

There was no torch-light, moonlight or sunlight that could vie with the physical light of the peerless Buddha Piyadassi which surpassed them all.

The life-span in the time of Buddha Piyadassi was ninety thousand years; living for four-fifths of the life-span, he rescued many beings of humans, Devas and Brahmas from the currents of samsara to put them on the shores of Nibbāna.

Samvega.

Buddha Piyadassī, who was to be liken with passed peerless Buddhas, and the pair of his peerless Chief Disciples, etc., had all vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this way the Noble Monk, Buddha Piyadassi attained Parinibbāna in the park of assattha trees; and in that park the cetiya erected and dedicated to Buddha Piyadassi (as has been stated before for other Buddhas) was three yojanās high.

Here ends Piyadassi Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 229 ] 14. ATTHADASSĪ BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Piyadassī had attained Parinibbāna, in that aeon (which should be called Manda Kappa because it was full of pleasing, spotless, special attributes though it was actually a Vara Kappa as three Buddhas appeared during that period) the life-span of human beings decreased gradually from ninety thousand years down to ten years, and then it increased up to asañkhyeyya. When the lifespan reached one hundred thousand years on its next decrease. Future Buddha Atthadassī was reborn in Tusitā on complete fulfilment of the Perfections in the tradition of Bodhisatta. Having agreed to the entreaty of Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Sudassana, Consort of King Sāgara in the city of Sobhana. Ten months thereafter the Bodhisatta was born in Sucindhana Park.

On his naming day he was named Atthadassī because owners of treasures hidden underground regained them after having discovered the forgotten sites of the treasures where they had long been kept one generation after another.

Royal household life.

When Bodhisatta Atthadassi came of age he lived in three palaces, namely, Amaragiri, Sugiri and Vāhana being entertained and served by thirty-three thousand female attendants headed by Princess Visākhā and thus enjoying a divine-like royal household life for ten thousand years.

Renunciation.

When the Bodhisatta had seen the four omens and when Queen Visākhā had given birth to a son named Sela, he went forth riding a horse named Sudassana. Nine crores of men followed his example and became recluses themselves.

[ 230 ] Attainment of Buddhahood.

With those nine crores of recluses Bodhisatta Atthadassī practised dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full-moon day of Vesākha, the day of his Enlightenment, people brought delicious milk-rice to offer it to the female naga, Sucindhara by name. But she did not eat it; having revealed herself to the people, she instead offered it in a golden bowl to the Bodhisatta. The Bodhisatta, partook of it and spent the daytime in the local grove of sala trees. In the evening he proceeded alone to the Mahā Bodhi, accepted on the way, eight handfuls of grass offered by the Naga King, Maharuci. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the campaka Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring fifty three cubits. Sitting cross-legged on that seat he mustered his energy of four levels, dispelled Māra's forces and attained Omniscient, Perfectly Self-Enlightened Buddhahood,state of Chief of the three worlds.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya).

After his attainment of Buddhahood, the Buddha stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty nine days the Buddha accepted the Brahma's requests and contemplated as to whom he should teach first; then he saw the nine crores of monks who had followed him renunciation and who had endowed with their past meritorious deeds leading to the Path. and Fruition. And having thought about their whereabout, he saw them staying in Anoma Park near the city of Anoma and immediately travelled through space to their residence at Anoma Park, near Anoma City.

At that time the nine crores of monks saw from a distance Buddha Atthadassi approaching them. With faithful heart they all performed their duties as has been before for previous Buddhas and took their seats around the Buddha, who delivered the Discourse of Dhammacakka-pavattana as all other Buddhas had done before. At the end of the Discourse one hundred thousand crores of beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 231 ] At another time Buddha Atthadassi travelled up to Tāvatiṃsa and taught Abhidhammā to Devas and Brahmas; one hundred thousand Devas and Brahmas attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time, as our Buddha Gotama visited his father in the city of Kapilavatthu and narrated the Buddhavaṃsa, so did Buddha Atthadassi visit the city of Sobhana and taught Dhamma to his relatives headed by his father. At the time one hundred thousand crores of people attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occassions of the Disciples' meeting. (sannipāta)

There were three meetings of the Buddha's Disciples; the first one took place at Sucandaka where Prince Santa and the Purohita's son, Upasanta (who were future Chief Disciples) seeing no essence in the three Vedas as well as in various creeds assigned four intellilgent men and some brave watch-men at the four gates of the four sides of the city with an instruction: "Come and inform us if you see or hear any enlightened person, be he a recluse or a brahmin."

When Buddha Atthadassi, Lord of the three kinds of men, with his disciples, arrived at Sucandaka city, those on assignment went to the prince and the Purohita's son and informed them of the Buddha's arrival. Being thus informed, with joyous hearts they both hurriedly went outside the city with a retinue of one thousand members and greeted, honoured and invited him (to the city). Having done so they performed a great incomparable alms-giving (asadisa mahādāna) for seven days to the Samgha with the Buddha at its head, and on the seventh day with all the citizens they both listened to the Buddha's teaching. On that day ninety-eight thousand people, on being pronounced "Come, O monks" became "Ehi bhikkhus" and attained Arahantship. In the midst of that assembly of monks the Buddha recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

[ 232 ] At another time when Buddha Atthadassi gave instructions to his own son, the Venerable Sela, eighty-eight thousand people developed faith and asked the Buddha for monkhood. The Buddha then pronounced, "Come, O monks;" and they all became "Ehi bhikkhu" monks and attained Arahantship. In the midst of that assembly of monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time, on the full-moon day of Magha, when beings--humans, Devas and Brahmas--assembled to listen to the sermon on Mahā Maṅgala, the Buddha delivered it and helped seventy-eight thousand people attain Arahantship; at that assembly of monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Hermit Susīma received prophecy from Buddha Atthadassī.

At that time our Future Buddha was reborn as Susīma in the city of Campaka; he was a wealthy Brahmin considered and recognized by the whole world as a virtuous one. Having given away all his wealth to the poor, the helpless, the destitude, travellers and others, he went near the Himalayas and lived the life of an ascetic. After achieving the eight attainment, and the five higher knowledges, he became a noble ascetic of supernormal power. Teaching people the merit of wholesome deeds and the demerit of unwholesome deeds, he waited for the time when a Buddha would appear.

Later on when Buddha Atthadassī appeared in the world and "showered the rain of discourses of immortality" in the midst of an audience composed of eight classes of people Susima the Ascetic listened to the Buddha's Dhamma. And he went up to the celestial abode, brought back such celestial flowers as mandārava, paduma, paricchattaka, etc., from Tāvatimsā. Wishing to display his miraculous power, he made himself visible and caused a rain of flowers in the four quarters like a great rain that fell all over the four continents; he also created a pavilion of flowers decorated on all sides with flowers, put a pinnacled arch over the entrance with decorated columns and nets, etc., and adorned with flowers. He then [ 233 ] honoured the Buddha with a huge umbrella of celestial mandārava flowers Buddha Atthadassi then made a prophecy concerning Susima the Ascetic; "This ascetic Susima will definitely become a Buddha, Gotama by name, in future when one thousand and eight hundred aeons have elapsed."

On hearing Buddha Atthadassi's prophecy, the future Buddha was extremely happy and firmly resolved to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically, fearing that he would become heedless.

Particulars of Buddha Atthadassi.

Buddha Atthadassi's birthplace was Sobhana City; his father was King Sāgara and his mother Queen Sudassanā.

He reigned for ten thousand years; his three palaces were Amaragiri, Sugiri and Vāhana.

His Chief Consort was Visakha who had thirty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Sela.

The vehicle he used in renunciation was a steed, Sudassana by name; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Santa Thera and Upasanta Thera: his attendant was Abhaya Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Dhammā Therī and Sudhammā Therī;. his Bodhi Tree was a campaka.

His noble supporters were the wealthy persons Nakula and Nisabha; his female supporters were Makilā Upāsikā and Sunandā Upāsikā.

The height of Buddha Atthadassī who had as his equals only peerless Buddhas, was eighty cubits and majestic like a sāla tree in full bloom or like the full moon, king of all the stars and planets.

[ 234 ] Buddha Atthadassi's rays of intense power coming out from his body, constantly radiated glowing above and below in the ten quarters for a yojana. (Should the Buddha wish and resolve, the rays could diffuse all over several crores of the world systems.)

Excelling all beings, Buddha Atthadassi was endowed with five eyes and existed in the world for a hundred thousand years. (This statement is based on the fact that the life-span in his time was a hundred thousand years. It should be understood that in reality he lived for four-fifths of the life-span.)

Saṃvega.

After shedding the peerless light of Dhamma in the world of humans and Devas, Buddha Atthadassī attained Parinibbana just like a fire became extinct on exhaufion of fuel.

Cetiya.

In this way to Buddha Atthadassī, Conqueror of the five Māras, attained Parinibbana in Anoma Park. As has been stated for other Buddhas, his relics dispersed according to his resolve and reached all over Jambudīpa and received veneration from beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas.

End of Atthadassī Buddhavaṃsa.

15. DHAMMADASSĪ BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Atthadassi had attained Parinibbāna in that aeon (which was a Vara Kappa as it was a period in which three Buddhas appeared but which should be called Manḍa Kappa because it was full of pleasing, spotless, special attributes) the life-span of human beings decreased gradually from a hundred thousand years down to ten years and then it increased up to asankhyeyya. When the lifespan reached one hundred thousand years on its next decrease, Future Buddha Dhammadassī was reborn in Tusitā on complete fulfilment of the Perfections in the tradition of the Bodhisattas. Having accepted the requests made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world to be [ 235 ] conceived in the womb of Queen Sunandā, consort of King Sarana in the city of Sarana. Ten months thereafter the Bodhisatta was born in Sarana royal park.

Since his birth unrighteous rules and codes applied in lawsuits had all automaticcally disappeared from Law Books while righteous ones had remained. Therefore when the prince was to get a name he was given the name of Dhammadassī by omen-reading learned men and his relatives.

Royal household life.

When Bodhisatta Dhammadassi came of age he lived in three palaces, namely Araja, Viraja and Sudassana being entertained and served by forty-three thousand female attendants headed by Princess Vicikoli and thus enjoying a divine like royal household life for eight thousand years.

Renunciation.

After he had seen the four omens and after his Princess, Vicikoli, had given birth to a son named Puññavaḍḍhana, Bodhisatta Dhammadassī, gentle like a celestial being and experiencing a divine-life, woke up one midnight; sitting up on his bed, he saw various loathsome conditions of female attendants who were asleep; with his mind greatly disturbed, he got an idea to renounce the world. No sooner had he got the idea Sudassana Palace occupied by him and accompanied by his fourfold army, rose to the sky and it travelled like a second sun of as a flying celestial mansion and descended near the bimbijala Mahā Bodhi .

The Bodhisatta then put on the lotus-robes offered by the Brahma and having got off the palace he stood not far from it. The palace travelled through the sky again and landed on the ground encompassing the Bodhi Tree. Female courtiers and their followers got down from the palace and stayed at a distance of half a gāvuta. From among those people, male folk donned the yellow robes in following the example of Bodhisatta. Those who did so numbered about one hundred thousand crores.

[ 236 ] Attainment of Buddhahood.

After practising dukkaracariya for seven days, the Bodhisatta Dhammadassi ate milk-rice offered by Princess Vicikoli on the fullmoon day of Vesakha, the day of his Enlightenment, and spent the daytime in the local badara (plum) grove. In the evening he went alone to the Mahā Bodhi; on the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass from Sirivaddha, the watch-man of the barley-field. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the (bimbijala) Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparajita Pallaṅka measuring fifity-three cubits. Sitting cross-legged on that pallaṅka he attained Buddhahood the way mentioned above.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammabhisamayas)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, the Buddha stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty nine days. Having accepted the Brahma's request for his teaching, he contemplated as to whom he should teach first; he saw the hundred thousand crores of monks who had renounced the world along with him who had done meritorious deeds in the past that would lead to the Path and Fruition and immediately travelled to the Deer Park (called Isipatana because it was a place where flying ascetics, masters of mundane Jhānas, normally alighted) eighteen yojanās from the Mahā Bodhi.

On seeing the Buddha from a distance the nine crores of the recluses welcomed him by performing various duties faithfully and taking their seats near him. Then the Buddha following the tradition of previous Buddhas delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta to the nine crores of recluses and all the Devas and Humans who had come to listen to him. At that time one hundred thousand crores of beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

Once thereafter in the town of Tagara King Sañjaya, having seen the disadvantages of sensual pleasures and the advantages of renunciation became an ascetic. Following his example, ninety crores of men also became ascetics. All of them achieved the five [ 237 ] Higher Knowledges, and the eight Attainments. Seeing them endowed with meritorious deeds leading to the Path and Fruition, the Buddha travelled through the space; arriving at Sañjaya's hermitage he stood in the sky and delivered a sermon that suited their inclinations and dispositions. Thus the Buddha helped them attain knowledge of the Path known as the Eye of Dhamma (Dhammacakkhu).

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time, the King of Devas, wishing to listen to a sermon, approached the Buddha with his retinue. When the Buddha delivered them a sermon, eighty crores of them attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammabhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting. (sanNipāta)

There are three meetings of Buddha Dhammadassi's Disciples: the first meeting took place at Sarana City, where Buddha Dhammadassi caused his half-brothers, Prince Paduma and Prince Phussa, with their retinues to become monks and observed vassa in that city; during the vassa and in the midst of a hundred crores of monks who had become Arahants, the Buddha performed Visuddhi Pavarana.

(This was the first sanNipāta.)

At another time Buddha Dhammadassi taught Abhidhammā in Tāvatiṃsa and descended back to the human world. Then one hundred crores of monks assembled.

(This was the second sanNipāta.)

Still at another time, Buddha Dhammadassi explained the advantages of the thirteen dhutaṅgas and proclaimed Harita, a great Disciple and Arahant, to be the foremost among those who practised dhutaṅgas. Then at the meeting of eighty crores of monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 238 ] Future Buddha Gotama as Sakka received prophecy from Buddha Dhammadassī.

At that time our Bodhisatta was Sakka, King of Devas; being accompanied by Devas of two divine abodes, Catumahārajika and Tāvatiṃsa, he came to the Buddha and honoured him with celestial flowers, etc., and various sounds of celestial music. Then the Buddha made a prophetic declaration: "This Sakka will indeed become a Buddha, Gotama by name, in future."

Having heard Buddha Dhammadassi's prophecy, Sakka the Bodhisatta became extremely pleased and resolved to fulfil the Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Buddha Dhammadassi.

Buddha Dhammadassi's birthplace was Saraṇa City; his father was King Sarana and his mother Queen Sunandā.

He reigned for eight thousand years; his three palaces were Araja, Viraja and Sudassana.

His Chief Consort was Vicikoli who had forty-three thousand maids of honour; his son was Puññvaḍḍhana.

The vehicle he used in renunciation after seeing the four omens was a palace; he practised dukkaracariya for seven days.

His two Chief Disciples were Paduma Thera and Phussa Thera; his attendant was Sunetta Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Khemā Therī and Saccanāmā Therī; his Bodhi Tree was a bimbÿla.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy persons Subhadda and Katissaha; his noble female lay supporters were Sāliya Upāsikā and Kaliyā Upāsikā.

Buddha Dhammadassi who had as his equals only peerless Buddhas was eighty cubits tall; he was glorious with power in the ten-thousand world-system.

[ 239 ] Buddha Dhammadassī was majestic like the sāla tree in full bloom or like the lightning or the sun at midday that lightens the sky.

Buddha Dhammadassi who was endowed with unparralled might and the five eyes lived the whole life-span of his time which was one hundred thousand years.

Saṃvega.

Having displayed his power and knowledge and purified his Teaching so that it had no stain, the Buddha attained Parinibbāna with his Disciples and disappeared (as the moon had vanished after shining in the sky.)

Cetiya.

In this way the greatly energetic Buddha Dhammadassī attained Parinibbāna at Sālā Park in the city of Sālavati. The cetiya erected in the park and dedicated to Buddha Dhammadassi was three yojanās high.

Here ends Dhammadassi Buddhavaṃsa

16. SIDDHATTHA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After the aeon in which Buddha Dhammadassi appeared had come to an end there elapsed one after another one thousand seven hundred and six aeons; then ninety-four aeons if calculated backwards from now, there appeared one and the only Buddha, Siddhattha by name.

The chronicle of Buddha Siddhattha goes like this. At that time, ninety-four aeons ago, when the life-span of human beings decreased from asankhyeyya down to a hundred thousand years. Bodhisatta Siddhattha on complete fulfilment of the Perfections, was reborn in Tusita, following the traditions of Bodhisattas. Having accepted the [ 240 ] request made by Devas and Brahmas he descended to the human world to be conceived in the womb of Queen Suphassā, Chief Consort of King Udena in the city of Vebhara. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Vīriya Park.

On naming day, learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Siddhattha because at the time of his birth everybody's endeavours, big or small, were accomplished and desirable results achieved.

Royal household life.

When Siddhattha Bodhisatta came of age, he lived in three palaces, namely Koka, Suppala and Kokanada being served and entertained by forty-eight thousand female attendants headed by Princess Somanasā and thus enjoying a divine-like royal household life for ten thousand years.

Renunciation.

When Bodhisatta Siddhattha had seen the four omens and when Princess Somanassā had given birth to a son named Anupama, he went forth riding a golden palanquin on the full-moon day of Āsahli and became a recluse in Viriya Park. Following his example a hundred thousand crores of men also became recluses.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With the hundred thousand crores of recluses Bodhisatta Siddhattha practised dukkaracariya for ten months; on the full-moon day of Vesākha, the day of his Enlightenment, he partook of milkrice offered by a brahmin girl named Sunetta of Asadisa village and spent the daytime in the local badara-grove. In the evening he went alone to the kanikāra Mahā Bodhi and accepted on the way eight handfuls of grass, from Varuṇa, a watchman of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass under the Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring forty cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the pallaṅka he attained Buddhahood the way mentioned previously for other Buddhas.

[ 241 ] Three occasions of the Buddha's teachings. (Dhammmābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Siddhattha stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty-nine days; aggreeing to the entreaty made by the Brahmas, he contemplated as to whom he should teach first; then he discerned the hundred thousand crores of recluses who with him had renounced the world and who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds that would lead them to the Path and Fruition. Thinking "I shall teach them first" he contemplated as to their whereabout and saw that they were living as before in the Deer Park, eighteen yojanās from the Mahā Bodhi. He immediately travelled through space to their place.

At that time the hundred thousand crores of recluses, seeing Buddha approaching them, welcomed him with faithful heart, attending upon him (in the way described above), took their appropriate seats, surrounding the Buddha. Then the Buddha taught the Dhammacakka pavattana Sutta (like all previous Buddhas) to them all, including Devas and humans who had come to listen to him. At that time one hundred thousand crores of beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time, at the invitation of King Bhīmaratha of Bhimaratha city, Buddha Siddhattha visited that city and staying at the royal pavilion erected on a grand scale in the city-centre, Buddha Siddhattha spoke in a voice that was like that of King of karavīka birds or like that of King of Brahmas, for it was sweet, pleasing to the ear and appealing to the hearts of the wise. Thus letting the Dhamma reach the ten quarters, he beat the drum of deathlessness. At that time ninety crores of beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time Buddha Siddhattha visited his hometown of Vebhāra where in the assembly of his relatives headed by his father King Udena, he narrated to them the Buddhavaṃsa. At that time ninety crores of beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 242 ] Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Siddhattha's ArahantDisciples. The first meeting took place at the city of Amara, beautiful and pleasing to the eye like the divine city of Tavatimsā; there in the city two brothers, who were also the two future Chief Disciples, Prince Sambala and Prince Sumitta, reigned together like Licchavi Princes during the lifetime of our Buddha. Seeing that the two princes were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition, Buddha Siddhattha journeyed through space to the centre of Amara City. There he descended to the surface of the earth, impressing it with the soles of his feet which were even and adorned with one hundred and eight marks; he thus showed his foot-prints (pādacetiya) worthy of respect and went to Amara Park where he stayed in glory like a golden statue on a stone slab.

Then the two royal brothers seeing the footprints (padacetiya) traced them along till they came near the Buddha with their retinues, paid obeisance to him and sat down around him. When the Buddha gave them a sermon that suited their inclinations and dispositions, they developed faith in him and after becoming monks they all attained Arahantship. In the midst of one hundred crores of monks the Buddha recited the Ovāda Patimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At another time in the midst of ninety crores of monks who had become bhikkhus at the assembly of his relatives in Vebhāra the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time in the midst of eighty crores of monks who had assembled at Sudassana Monastery the Buddha recited the Ovāda Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 243 ] Future Buddha Gotama as Hermit Maṅgala received prophecy from Buddha Siddhattha.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha in the city of Sūrasena was a Brahmin named Maṅgala who was accomplished in the Vedas in their original texts as well as in their branches of literature. He gave away all his possessions worth several crores to the poor and the destitute and since he took delight in seclusion he became an ascetic; and developing Jhānas and Abhiññas he achieved effective powers by virtues of which nobody could torture him. While he was thus staying he heard the news, "Buddha Siddhattha had appeared in the world," He therefore approached the Buddha and adoringly paid respect to him; on hearing the Buddha's teaching the ascetic became so pleased that he brought fruits from the rose-apple tree of Jambudipa with his power and at Surasena Monastery where he accommodated the Buddha he offered the fruits as food to the Buddha accompanied by ninety crores of his disciples. Having partaken of the fruits, Buddha Siddhattha declared prophetically; "This Maṅgala the Ascetic will become indeed a Buddha, Gotama by name, in the ninety-fourth aeon from the present one."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta, Maṅgala the Ascetic, was overjoyed and firmly resolved to fulfil the ten perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Buddha Siddhattha.

The birthplace of Buddha Siddhattha was Vebhāra City; his father was King Udena and his mother Queen Suphassa.

He reigned for ten thousand years; his three palaces were Koka, Suppala and Kokanada.

His Chief Consort was Somanasā who had forty-eight thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Anupama.

The vehicle he used in renouncing the world was a palanquin; he practised dukkaracariya for ten months.

[ 244 ] His two Chief Disciples were Sambala Thera and Sumitta Thera; his attendant was Revata Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sīvalā Theri and Surāmā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a kaṇikāra.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy persons Suppiya and Samudda; his noble female supporters were Rammā Upasika and Surammā Upasika.

Buddha Siddhattha's height was sixty cubits; he shone forth in the ten-thousand world-system like a column of jewels erected for worship.

Resembling the unequalled former Buddhas, peerless and unrivalled and endowed with the five 'eyes', Buddha Siddhattha lived for a hundred thousand years.

Having displayed several extensive physical rays as well as intellectual brilliance, having caused the flowering of the Path and Fruition in his Disciples, and having glorified them with attainments both mundane and supramundane, Buddha Siddhattha attained Parinibbana with them all, and came to the end of his final existence.

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Siddhattha, noble monarch of all monks, attained Parinibbāna in Anoma Park near Kancanavelu city. In that very park a cetiya of jewels was erected in the way mentioned previously and dedicated to Buddha Siddhattha was four yojanās high.

Here ends Siddhattha Buddhavaṃsa.

1. Bhudda kappa: for kappa in general, see Vol 1, Part 1, Anudipaī Chapter I, II ,III.

3. Gotrabhū Ñāna: the wisdom that helps one cut off the heritages of kāmaconsciousness and evolve the lineage of the Rūpa-class of exalted consciousness.

4. Eight attainments: eight samapatti-attainments of four Rūpa Jhānas and Arūpa Jhānas.

5. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which each bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

6. This statement-made by the another is repeated after the declaration of prophecy made by each Buddha. We will leave out similar statements from the accounts of later Buddhas.

9. Four features, see p.

10. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which a bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethrem in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

13. With the snapping of the fingers: equivalent to expression of praise or approval with clapping of the hands.

15. See Vol. I, Part II, Chapter VII, voice of eight quanties.

16. Buddhuppada navama, see Chapter VI, REFLECTIONS ON PERFECTIONS, Vol 1, Part 1.

VOLUME_1
PART_2
CHAPTER_9

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THE CHRONICLE OF TWENTY-FOUR BUDDHAS.
BUDDHAVAṂSA (17 to 24) AND SUPPLEMENT.

17. TISSA Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 245 ] When the aeon in which Buddha Siddhattha appeared had come to an end, there immediately followed a kappa, a void one in which no Buddhas appeared. When that kappa was over and in the ninetysecond aeon calculated back from the present one, two Buddhas, Tissa and Phussa, appeared. (It was a Maṇḍa Kappa.)

The chronicle of Buddha Tissa was as follows: In that ninetysecond kappa the human life-span on its decline from asankhyeyya reached a hundred thousand years, the Future Buddha Tissa was reborn in Tusita on complete fulfilment of the Perfections. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Queen Padumā Chief Consort of King Janasandha, in the city of Khemaka. When ten months had elapsed the, Bodhisatta was born in Anoma Park.

On his naming day learned readers of omens and his relatives named the Bodhisatta Prince Tissa. (There are two kinds of name: anvattha and rulhi; the name given after a particular event or in a particular meaning is anvattha. The name given not after a particular event or in a particular meaning but given for convenience sake is rulhi. Here the name Tissa given to the Bodhisatta is of the rulhi kind.)

Royal household life.

When the Bodhisatta Prince Tissa came of age, he lived in three palaces, namely, Guhasela, Nārisaya and Nisabha, being entertained and served by thirty thousand female attendants headed by Princess Subhadda and thus living a divine-like royal household life for seven thousand years.

Renunciation.

When the Bodhisatta had seen the four omens and when Princess Subhaddā had given birth to a son named Ānanda, he went forth riding a thoroughbred named Sonuttara, and became a recluse. A crore of inspired men followed his example and became recluses themselves.

[ 246 ] Attainment of Buddhahood.

With the crore of those recluses, the Bodhisatta Tissa practised dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full-moon day of Vesākha, the day of his Enlightenment, he partook of the milk-rice offered by Vīra, daughter of a wealthy person of Vira market-town, and spent the daytime in the local salala grove. In the evening he went alone to the Mahā Bodhi. On the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Vijitasañgāmaka, a watchman of barley (wheat) field. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the (asana ) Mahā Bodhi Tree, there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring forty cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the pallaṅka he attained Buddhahood in the way mentioned previously.

Three occasion of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Tissa stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty-nine days. Having complied with the Brahma's request for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw that Future Chief Disciples Princes Brahmadeva and Udaya, residents of Yasavatī, who with their retinues were endowed with previous meritorious deeds leading to the Path and Fruition. He then immediately travelled through space, descended in the Deer Park near Yasavatī and sent the gardener for the two princes. On their arrival with their retinues, as had been done by former Buddhas as a rule, Buddha Tissa delivered the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta to humans and Devas who had followed the two princes and their men to listen to the teaching; the Buddha did so proclaiming all over the ten-thousand world-system in a voice similar to that of the king of Brahmas - distinct, far-reaching and sweet. Then a hundred thousand beings of humans, Devas and Brahmas attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time when a crore of recluses, who had been his companions in renunciation (and who had parted with him as he was moving to the Mahā Bodhi), on hearing that he had taught the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta, travelled to the Deer Park near [ 247 ] Yasavatī. (On arriving there) they paid homage to the Buddha and took their seats around him. When the Buddha taught the Dhamma to these monks and all others who had come to listen to the Buddha, ninety crores of beings headed by the crore of monks attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was second Dhammabhisamaya.)

Still at another time when men and Devas discussed what constituted auspiciousness (maṅgala) leading to prosperity in the world but could not get the answer acceptable to all and when they put the same question to Him, the Buddha taught them the discourse on maṅgala; at the end of the discourse sixty crores of gods and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasion of the Disciples' meeting (sanNipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Tissa's Disciples; the first took place at Yasavatī where the Buddha, being accompanied by a hundred thousand Arahants who had become bhikkhus at the beginning of the vassa and attained Arahantship during the vassa, performed the Visuddhi Pavāraṇā on the full-moon day of Assayuja.

(This was the first sanNipāta.)

At another time when the Buddha going on a journey arrived at the city of Narivahana, Prince Nārivahana, son of King Sujāta in that city, whith his hosts of followers, welcomed the Buddha and invited him and his Saṃgha to the ceremony of an unparalleled almsgiving held for seven days. Having handed over the kingdom to his son, he sought monkhood with his followers in the presence of the Buddha. Buddha Tissa then called them "Come, O monks", and they all became "Ehi bhikkhu". When the news of Nārivāhana's renunciation spread, people from all quarters came and followed his example. Then in the midst of the bhikkhus numbering nine millions, Buddha Tissa recited the Ovāda Patimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time in the city of Khemavatī (Khemaka) at the assembly of the Buddha's relatives, after listening to the chronicle of Buddhas narrated by the Buddha, eight million people became [ 248 ] bhikkhus in the presence of the Buddha and attained Arahantship. Surrounded by these bhikkhus Buddha Tissa recited the Ovāda Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Hermit, Sujāta received prophecy from Buddha Tissa.

Meanwhile our Bodhisatta was King Sujāta in the city of Yasavatī; his prosperous city, his wealth worth several crores and members of his retinue who were always willingly attending upon him-he discarded them all with no attachment whatever as though they were blades of grass and stalks of reeds; with his heart filled with fear of suffering in rebirth, etc., he renounced the world and became an ascetic (even before Buddha Tissa's appearance) and acquired great psychic power and fame. On hearing that "Buddha Tissa has appeared", his whole body was pervaded with the five kinds of ecstasy. Most respectfully he approached the Buddha and worshipped him. Thinking, "I will honour the Buddha with such flowers as salala, paricchattaka and others", he went up to the celestial abode by means of his psychic power and entered the garden of Cittalatā; there he filled a basket measuring a gāvuta with those celestial flowers and brought it across the sky and finally honoured the Buddha with the immensely fragrant flowers.

Besides, in the middle of the assembly of four classes of people, the Bodhisatta stood holding over the Buddha's head a padumasunshade which was an umbrella made of very sweet smelling pollens, with a rod of ruby, a pinnacle of, leaves of red ruby; he thus honoured the Buddha. Then the Buddha prophesied concerning the Bodhisatta, Sujāta the Ascetic: "In the ninety-second aeon from the present one, this Sujāta the Ascetic will become a Buddha, Gotama by name."

On hearing the Buddha's prophecy, Bodhisatta Sujāta, the Ascetic was filled with devotional faith and resolved to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

[ 249 ] Particulars of Buddha Tissa.

Buddha Tissa's birthplace was Khemaka City; his father was King Janasandha and his mother Queen Padumā.

He reigned for seven thousand years; his three palaces were Guhāsela, Nārisaya and Nisabha.

His Chief Consort was Subhaddā who had thirty thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Ānanda.

After seeing the four omens he renounced the world riding a thoroughbred named Sonuttara; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Brahmadeva Thera and Udaya Thera; his Attendant was Samaṅga Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Phussā Theri and Sudattā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was an asana.

His noble supporters were the wealthy persons Sambala and Sirimā; his noble female supporters were Kisā Gotamī Upāsikā and Upasena Upāsikā.

Buddha Tissa was ten cubits tall; he was matchless and unequalled; he appeared like a mountain in the Himalayas to those who saw him.

The life-span of Buddha Tissa endowed with incomparable psychic power was neither too short no too long. Buddha Tissa, the Possessor of the five 'eyes', lived in the world for a hundred thousand years.

Buddha Tissa who had dispelled the darkness of ignorance (avijjā), after enjoying a great fame which surpassed the fame of those highly noble and admirable personages, attained Parinibbāna with his many Arahant-Disciples just as a mass of fire that had become extinct after burning very brightly.

[ 250 ] Cetiya.

In this way, Buddha Tissa, Conqueror of the five Māras, attained Parinibbāna in Nanda Park near Sunandavati City. In that very Park, a cetiya was erected in the way mentioned previously and dedicated to Buddha Tissa: it was three yojanās high.

Here ends Tissa Buddhavaṃsa.

18. PHUSSA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

1 After Buddha Tissa's Parinibbāna in that Maṇḍa Kappa of two Buddhas, the human life-span decreased from a hundred thousand years down to ten years and increased up to asaṅkhyeyya. When it reached ninety thousand years on its next decline Bodhisatta Phussa on completion of his Perfections, was reborn in Tusita in the tradition of Bodhisattas. Having accepted the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Queen Sirimā, consort of King Jayasena in the city of Kāsika. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Sirima Park.

Royal household life.

When Prince Tissa came of age he lived in three palaces, Garulapekkha, Hamsa and Suvaṇṇabhāra being entertained and served by thirty thousand female attendants headed by Princess Kisā Gotamī and thus enjoying a divine-like royal household life for nine thousand years.

Renunciation.

When the Bodhisatta Prince Phussa had seen the four omens while thus enjoying life and when Princess Kisā Gotamī had given birth to a son named Anupama, he renounced the world, riding an elephant. Ten million men followed his example and became recluses.

[ 251 ] Attainment of Buddhahood.

With those ten million recluses the Bodhisatta Phussa practised dukkaracariya for six months; thereafter, leaving his followers, he cultivated the practice of living a solitary life for seven days. On the full-moon day of Vesākha, the day of his Enlightenment, he partook of the milk-rice, offered by Sirivaddhā, daughter of a certain wealthy man of a certain town, and spent the daytime in the local simsapa grove. In the evening he went alone to the āmaṇḍa Mahā Bodhi and on the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by an ascetic, Sirivaddha by name. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the Mahā Bodhi, there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring thirty eight cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the pallanka he attained Buddhahood in the aforesaid manner.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Phussa stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi for forty-nine days. Having agreed to the request made by the Brahma for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw one crore of monks, his companions in renunciation who were endowed with past meritous deeds leading to the Path and Fruition. He then immediately travelled through the space to the Deer Park called Isipatana near the city of Sankassa. In the midst of those recluses the Buddha gave the sermon of Dhammacakka to all the listeners as had been done by former Buddhas. Then a hundred thousand crores of Devas and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At another time King Sirivaddha of Bāranasī, having discarded his great wealth, became an ascetic and nine million people did the same along with the king. To the place of the ascetics Buddha Phussa went and taught them the Dhamma; nine million beings attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 252 ] Still at another time Buddha Phussa preached his son Prince Anupama. Then eight million Devas and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Phussa's Disciples; the first took place at Kaṇṇakujja. There Prince Surakkhita and the Purohita's son Dhammasena, Future Chief Disciples, and residents of the city, with six million men welcomed the Buddha who was on a visit to the city; they also respectfully invited him and performed a great alms-giving cermony for seven days. After listening to the Buddha's sermon, the two princes developed faith in the Buddha and became monks with their six million companions and all attained Arahantship. In the midst of those Arahants the Buddha recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(That was the first sannipāta.)

At another time at the assembly of his relatives headed by his father King Jayasena of the city of Kasika, the Buddha narrated the Chronicle of Buddha. Having listened to the Chronicle five million people became 'Ehi bhikkhu' and attained Arahantship. At the meeting of these five million Arahants Buddha Phussa recited the Ovādā Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time when men and Devas discussed what constituted auspiciousness (maṅgala) leading to prosperity in the world but could not get the answer acceptable to all and when they put the same question to him, the Buddha delivered the Maṅgala Sutta. After listening to the discourse, four million people became bhikkhus and attained Arahantship. In the midst of these Arahants the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 253 ] Future Buddha Gotama as King Vijitāvī received prophecy from Buddha Phussa.

Meanwhile our Bodhisatta was King Vijitavī in the city of Arindama. Having listened to the Buddha's discourse, he developed faith in the Buddha, performed a great alms-giving, abandoned his city and became a bhikkhu and learned the three Pitakas. Being well-versed in Pitakas, he disseminated the Dhamma to all people. He also properly fulfilled the Perfection of Morality.

Then the Buddha Phussa, noble leader of the three worlds, made a prophecy concerning Bodhisatta Bhikkhu Vijitāvī: "In the ninetysecond aeon from the present one, this Bhikkhu Vijitavī will become a Buddha, Gotama by name."

Having listened to Buddha Phussa's prophecy, the Bodhisatta Bhikkhu Vijitāvī was filled with devotional faith and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

Having become a bhikkhu and a servant in the Dispensation of Buddha Phussa and becoming accomplished in the studies of the Buddha's Teachings which are of nine divisions together with the Sutta and the Vinaya, the noble Bodhisatta contributed to the glory of the Buddha's Dispensation.

(Without lying down at all), exercising only the three postures of sitting, standing and walking, the Bodhisatta developed the sublime mode of living (Brahrnavihāra) without negligence, attained not only the eight attainments but also the apex of the five Higher Knowledges; at the end of his life he was reborn in the Brahma world.

Particulars of Buddha Phussa.

Buddha Phussa's birthplace was Kāsika City; his father was King Jayasena and his mother Queen Sirimā.

He reigned for nine thousand years; his three palaces were Garulapakkha, Hamsa and Suvannabhāra.

[ 254 ] His Chief Consort was Kisa Gotamī who had thirty thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Anupama.

The vehicle he used in renunciation after seeing the four omens was an elephant; he practised dukkaracariya for six months.

His two Chief Disciples were Surakkhita Thera and Dhammasena Thera; his attendant was Sabhiya Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Cālā Therī and Upacālā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was an āmaṇḍa.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy person Dhananjaya and Visakha; his noble female supporters were Padumā Upāsikā and Nāgā Upāsikā.

Buddha Phussa was fifty eight cubits tall; he shone forth like the sun and was endowed with pleasing qualities of the moon.

The life-span in the aeon in which he appeared was ninety thousand years; for four-fifths of his life-span, he rescued beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores. Endowed with unparralled retinue and fame, that Buddha Phussa together with his several ArahantDisciples attained Parinibbana and came to the end of his final existence.

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Phussa, Conqueror of the five Maras, attained Parinibbana in a park named Senā near the city of Kusināra. In accordance with his resolve, as has been said before, the relics dispersed and spread all over Jambūdīpa and were worshiped by humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Phussa Buddhavaṃsa.

[ 255 ] 19. VIPASSI BUDDHAVAṂSA.

When the aeon in which Buddha Phussa had appeared came to an end, in the ninety-first kappa calculated back from the present one, there appeared Buddha Vipassī. The chronicle of Buddha Vipassī is as follows:

In that ninety-first aeon when the life-span of human beings decreased from asaṅkhyeyya down to eighty thousand years, Bodhisatta Vipassī; on complete fulfilment of Perfections, was reborn in Tusitā follwing the traditions of Bodhisattas. Having accepted the request made by Devas and Brahmas he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Queen Bandhumatī, Consort of King Bandhuma in the city of Bandhumati. When ten months had elapsed he was born in Migadāya garden which should be called Deer Park, for it, as a sanctuary, Khema by name, was full of deer.

Miraculous happening.

When the Bodhisatta prince was born, wherever he went by day or by night a huge white umbrella of divine origin constantly hovered over him to protect him from heat and cold, dust and dew drops. He was ever adored by people. He was brought up being carried now in one's lap and then in another's, getting no chance to put his feet on the ground.

The meaning of the name Vipassī.

Since his birth he had possessed wonderful eyes which were kammavipākaja (or which appeared as a result of his meritorious deeds), powerful like divine ones.With these eyes the Bodhisatta could see unobstructed as far as one yojana around in daytime or at night. As Devas of Tāvatimsa always see only with their open eyes so had the Bodhisatta prince seen things with his never-closed but ever-open eyes since his birth; hence his famous name, Prince vipassī.

[ 256 ] Besides, one day while a case was being tried at the law-court of his father King Bandhuma, the duly adorned baby prince was handed to the king; the king placed him in his lap and while he was fondly amusing him, his ministers judged against a certain owner of property saying that he was not the owner. Unsatisfied with the unjust decision, the prince sundenly cried bitterly; the king then asked his men to look for the reason saying, "why has such a thing happened to my son? Investigate into the matter". When they investigated they found no cause other than that judges at the law court must have made a wrong verdict. So the verdict was reversed. Being satisfied then, the prince stopped crying. In order to find out "whether the prince cried actually knowing the case," they reverted to the original decision. This made him cry again bitterly as before. Then only did the father realize, "My son really knows what is right and what is wrong." Since then the king ruled his country without negligence.

From that time onwards the Bodhisatta's name, Prince Vipassī, became more famous on account of his ability to distinguish between a right thing and a wrong one.

Royal household life.

When Prince Vipassī came of age, he lived in three palaces, Nanda, Sunanda and Sirimā, being entertained and served by female attendants headed by Princess Sudassanā (or Sutanu) and thus enjoying Deva-like bliss of royal household life for eight thousand years.

The four omens.

One day Prince Vipassī summoned his charioteer and said: "I would like to see the gardens. I shall go there." On his way to the gardens in a chariot on the way he saw an old man who was a Deva in disguise. (Since it was a strange sight as he had never seen any aged person before) he asked: "O charioteer, what is this man doing? His hair as well as his body are not like others".

My lord, this is an old man, replied the charioteer, "What is an old man?" asked the prince again (as he did not actually know what an old man meant). "My lord," answered the charioteer, "an [ 257 ] old man is an aged person. He cannot live much longer." "Charioteer, will I also become old? Am I subject to old age, too?" "My lord, you and I, nay, everybody is liable to grow old. Nobody can escape old age."

Then the Bodhisatta Prince said, "No longer do I want to see the gardens, turn back from here to the palace." When he got back to the palace he contemplated: "Oh, birth is indeed wearisome. When there is birth, there will definitely be old age." Thus contemplating the prince became very unhappy.

Having learnt about the matter from the charioteer, he provided him with means for enjoying sensual pleasures more then before in order to prevent his son from renouncing the world.

Several thousand years after that, when the prince went to the gardens for second time and saw a sick person on the way, he did not proceed but turned back to the palace as before. When the father heard of his son's unhappiness and pensive mood he enticed him with even more objects of sensual pleasures.

On his third trip to the gardens too several thousand years after that, having seen a dead body he returned to the palace as before.

Still several thousand years thereafter when he made a fourth trip to the gardens, he came across a monk on the way and asked the charioteer about the monk. When he came to know what a monk was, he was so pleased that he had the chariot driven towards the monk's direction.

On reaching the monk, he asked more details of monkhood and became all the more delighted; accordingly he said to the charioteer: "Charioteer, take back the chariot to the palace and keep it there. I shall become a recluse at this very place." He thus sent the charioteer back. That was the day on which Princess Sudassana gave birth to a son named Samavattakkhandha.

After sending back the charioteer, Prince Vipassī [ 258 ] shaved his head, put on the yellow robes and became a recluse. (Though there is no mention of how the bowl and robes were obtained, it should be understood that in conformity to the tradition they were offered by Suddhavasa Brahmas who came down for this purpose.)

Then eighty-four thousand citizens of Bandhumatī, on hearing of the Bodhisatta's renunciation, followed his example and became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

Being accompanied by those eighty-four thousand recluses, Bodhisatta Vipassī made a tour of villages, market-towns, and cities. Everywhere he went people erected pavilions and gave him alms-food on a grand scale; but the Bodhisatta was tired of such grand offerings. The day before the eighth month of his renunciation, i.e. on the fourteenth waxing moon of Vesākha, it occurred to him thus: "It is not proper for me to live in the company of my followers. What if I were to stay alone and away from them." So he parted with his men. On the full-moon day of Vesakha, the day of his Enlightenment, he partook of the milk-rice offered by the daughter of Sudassana, the wealthy man and spent the daytime in the local sāla grove. In the evening he went to the pātali Mahā Bodhi and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass from Sujata, a watch-man of barley field. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of patali Bodhi Tree, there arose the Aparājita Pāllaṅka measuring fifty-three cubits high.

The trunk of the pātali Bodhi Tree was fifty cubits high, its main-branches were also fifty cubits in length; so the total height of the tree was one hundred cubits on the day the tree was approached by the Bodhisatta. That day the tree looked as though it was covered from the bottom to the top by fragrant flowers which were strung together uniformly. It was pervaded with divine scents. On that day not only the pātali Bodhi Tree but also all the trees and bushes in the tenthousand world-system bloomed.

Sitting crosslegged on the Pallaṅka the Bodhisatta concentrated his energy of four levels and as has been said before he attained Buddhahood.

[ 259 ] Three occasion of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

Having attained Buddhahood the Buddha stayed in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree for forty-nine days. Having accepted the Brahma's request he consider as to whom he should teach first, and saw his half brother, Prince Khanda and the Purohita's son Tissa who were Future Chief Disciples endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition he immediately travelled through space to the Deer Park called Khema. After arrving there he sent the gardener for prince Khanda and his friend Tissa. When they came he advised them to renounce the world and taught the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta to all Devas and human who had gathered to listen to him, Then countless Devas and Brahmas headed by the prince and the Purohita's son attained the Path and Fruition.

In particular Prince Khanda and the Purohita's son Tissa who were Future Chief Disciples became "Ehi bhikkhus" in the presence of the Buddha and attained Arahantship not long after.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamya.)

At a later time, on hearing that "Buddha Vipassī has arrived at Khema Deer Park near Bandhumati" and that "Prince Khanda and the Purohita's son Tissa also have become monks in the presence of Buddha Vipassī", eighty-four thousand male citizens of Bandhumatī followed their example and became monks themselves. To these eighty-four thousand monks the Buddha administered the "Elixir of Immortality".

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Eighty-four thousand men who were members of retinue while Buddha Vipassī was a prince came to attend upon him early in the morning of the day the Bodhisatta went to the royal gardens for the fourth time which was also the day of his renunciation; when they did not see the prince at the palace, they returned home for the morning meal; after finishing the meal they enquired about the Prince. Hearing that he had gone to the gardens they left for the gardens to see the Prince.

On the way they met with the charioteer sent back by Prince Vipassī and heard from him of the prince's renunciation. On the spot [ 260 ] they took off all their layman's clothing, cut off their hair and beard and became recluses in the robes bought at a market. Then these eighty-four thousand recluses who had followed his example approached Bodhisatta Vipassī and sat down around him. Surrounded thus by them, the Bodhisatta practised dukkaracariya for eight months; the day before the full moon of Vesākha, the fourteenth waxing moon of the month, he became tired of association with his retinue and thought: "I have been with them all along. While I was a prince I roamed about in the company of these eighty-four thousand men. It is not proper to have them with me also now. What is the use of such a band of people." He also thought thus: "I shall depart from them even today." Then he changed his thought thus: "There is little time left for so doing today. If I go now they will all know my departure. I had better go tomorrow."

Meanwhile residents of a certain village which was like Uruvela in the time of our Buddha were busy preparing milk-rice for the Bodhisatta and his eighty-four thousand companions for the following day after duly inviting them. On the following day which was the full moon of Vesākha, Bodhisatta Vipassī partook of the meal with his retinue at the village and returned to his sylvan residence.

On his getting back there the recluses performed their duties towards the Bodhisatta and withdrew to their respective own places. Then only the Bodhisatta who was in his little leaf-hut, deciding "It is the best time for me to leave," got out from the hut, shut its door and headed for the Mahā Bodhi.

In the evening the recluses went to the Bodhisatta's retreat to attend upon him and waited there around the hut, expecting to see their master. Only after a long time they said among themselves: "A long time has elapsed. Let us investigate". So saying they opened the door of the leaf-hut and looked inside but did not see the Bodhisatta. Nevertheless wondering "Where has the master gone?" did not make any effort to search him. "He must have been fed up with our company and seems to like staying alone. We shall see him only when he became a Buddha." With such thoughts they left the place turning towards the interior of Jambudīpa.

[ 261 ] Later on when they heard "Prince Vipassī has become a Buddha and taught the Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta," they all went to the Khema Deer Park near Bandhumati city, arrived and assembled there in due course. The Buddha then gave them a talk on the Dhamma. The eighty-four thousand monks attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sanNipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Vipassī's Disciples. The first took place at Khema Deer Park; there in the midst of eightyfour thousand monks who had followed Buddha Vipassī and eightyfour thousand monks who had followed Prince Khanda and the Purohita's son Tissa in renunciation totalling one hundred and sixtyeight thousand monks Buddha Vipassī recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At a later time there took place the meeting of a hundred thousand monks who had put on the robes after witnessing the Twin Miracle displayed by the Buddha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at a later time Buddha Vipassī's three half brothers on their return after crushing an insurgency on the border were asked to express their boons by their royal father who was so delighted with their success. "We have been permitted to ask what we want," said the princes among themselves, "We do not need ask any other boon than permission to attend upon our elder brother." When they asked for the same and got it, they invited the Buddha to the towns and villages under them to attend upon and honour him. Accordingly the Buddha went and accepted the veneration shown to him. The Buddha also gave them a sermon as a result of which eighty thousand people became "Ehi bhikkhus" and attained Arahantship.

In the company of those eighty thousand Arahants in Khemaka Deer Park, Buddha Vipassī recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 262 ] Future Buddha Gotama as Atula Nāga King received prophecy from Buddha Vipassī.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was the Nāga-King Atula of great power. In the company of several crores of nāgas, playing celestial musical instruments, he approached Buddha Vipassī, Lord of the three worlds. In order to honour to the Buddha and his bhikkhus, he invited the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha (to his place). He built a great pavilion adorned with seven kinds of gems pleasing to the eye like the orb of a full moon. He accommodated the Buddha with his Saṃgha in the pavilion and performed grand alms-giving to them for seven days. He also offered a golden bench richly decorated to the Buddha.

Sitting in the midst of the Saṃgha, the Buddha gave him a sermon in appreciation of his alms and, at the conclusion of the sermon, declared prophetically about him saying, "In the ninety-first kappa from the present one, this Atula Nāga-King will indeed become a Buddha."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy Bodhisatta Atula Nāga King was overjoyed, and determined to fulfil the Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Buddha Vipassī.

Buddha Vipassī's birthplace was Bandhumatī City; his father was King Bandhuma and his mother Bandhumatī.

He reigned for eight thousand years; his three palaces were Nanda, Sunanda and Sirimā.

His Chief Consort was Sudassanā who had one hundred and twenty thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Samavattakkhandha.

The vehicle he used after seeing the four omens was a chariot drawn by a thoroughbred; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

[ 263 ] His two Chief Disciples were Khanda Thera and Tissa Thera; his attendant was Asoka Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Candā Theri and Candamittā Therī; his Bodhi Tree was a pātali.

His noble lay supporters were the wealthy persons Punabbasumitta and Nāga; his female supporters were Sirimā Upāsikā and Uttarā Upāsikā.

The height of Buddha Vipassī, Lord of the three worlds, was eighty cubits; his rays spread as far as seven yojanās. (By 'his rays' is meant his natural body lustre.)

The life-span during Vipassī Buddha's time was eighty thousand; living for four-fifths of the life-span, he rescued humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsāric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores.

After showing the light of Dhamma and teaching on the deathless Nibbāna, Buddha Vipassī with many of his Disciple-Arahants finally attained Parinibbāna (as a mass of fire became extinct after burning brightly).

Saṃvega.

Buddha Vipassī's exalted power, exalted glory, and his body adorned with characteristic marks-all of these had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Vipassī, Conqueror of the five Māras, attained Parinibbāna in Sumitta Park. A cetiya was erected in that very park and dedicated to Buddha Vipassī; it was seven yojanās high.

Here ends Vipassī Buddhavaṃsa

[ 264 ] 20. SIKHĪ BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After the end of the aeon in which Buddha Vipassī appeared, no Buddhas emerged in the world for fifty-nine aeons as they were suñña-kappas; there was no light of Dhamma; in fact, total darkness of ignorance (avijjā) prevailed and only Māra the Evil One and Mara the defilements reigned supreme in the world without any opposition. It was to their whim and fancy that beings were bound to follow.

When the fifty-nine suñña kappas were over, in the thirty-first aeon if calculated back from the present one, two Buddhas, Sikhi and Vessabhū, appeared. (It was a Maṇḍa Kappa.)

The chronicle of the Buddha Sikhī, first of the two is as follows: In that thirty-first kappa, when the life-span of human beings decreased from asankhyeyya and reached seventy thousand years, on complete fulfilment of the Perfections, Bodhisatta Sikhī was reborn in Tusitā. Having agreed to the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Pabhāvatī, Consort of King Aruna of Arunavatī City. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Nisabha Park.

On his naming day learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Sikhī because his head-band like flesh on the forehead (uṇhīsa) stoot up like the crest of a peacock.

Royal household life.

When he came of age Prince Sikhī lived in three palaces, Sucandaka, Giri and Vasabha being entertained and served by twenty-four thousand female attendants headed by Princess Sabbakāmā and enjoying divine-like royal household life for seven thousand years.

Renunciation.

When Bodhisatta Prince Sikhī had seen the four omens while enjoying royal household life and when Princess Sabbakāmā had [ 265 ] given birth to a son named Atula, he renounced the world riding an elephant. Seven million men also renounced the world following his example.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With those seven million recluses Bodhisatta Sikhī practised dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full-moon day, the day of his Enlightenment, he left those recluses, partook of the milk-rice offered by Piyadassī, daughter of a wealthy man, resident of the market town of Sudassana, and spent the daytime in the local grove of young acacias. In the evening he proceeded alone to the Maha Bodhi and accepted on the way eight handfuls of grass offered by an ascetic named Anomadassī. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the puṇdarika Mahā Bodhi Tree, there arose the Aparajita Pallaṅka measuring thirty-two cubits.

The size of that puṇḍarīka Bodhi Tree was the same as that of the pātali Bodhi Tree of the previous Buddha Vipassī. Its trunk was fifty cubits high and its main branches were also exactly fifty cubits high on the day the Bodhisatta approached it. It stood as though it was covered by fragrant flowers of divine origin. It looked to have been covered not only by flowers but also by fruits. They were hanging from here and there: young fruits on one side of the tree, the medium-sized fruits on another side and those ripe enough were all very tasty as if celestial nutriments was put in them. In fact, they all possessed wonderful colour, flavour and taste. Likewise all fruit-trees and flower-trees in the tenthousand world-system bore fruits and flowers on that very day.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After the attainment of Buddhahood, Sikhi Buddha stayed in the neighbourhood of the puṇdarīka Mahā Bodhi Tree for forty nine days. Having complied with the Brahma's request for teaching, he contemplated as to whom he should teach first, and saw seven [ 266 ] millions fellow bhikkhus who were endowed with the merrits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition. He then went through space and descended in Migājina Park, their residence near the city of Arunavatī. Sitting gracefully in the midst of those seven million recluses, Buddha Sikhī delivered the Dhammacakka sermon as was done by former Buddhas, to Devas and humans who had come to listen. Then a hundred thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At a later time also near the city of Aruṇavatī the Buddha taught Dhamma to future Chief Disciples Prince Abhibhu and Prince Sambhava, and their retinues, and administered the Elixir of Immortality to ninety thousand Devas and humans.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at another time near a campaka tree close to the gate of Suriyavatī City, the Buddha displayed the Twin Miracle and gave a discourse in order to suppress the arrogance of heretics and to free beings from the bondage of defilements. At that time eighty thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition. (This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Sikhi's Disciple-Arahants; at the first meeting in the midst of a hundred thousand Arahants who were companions in renunciation of Princes Abhibhu and Sambhava, Buddha Sikhi recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At a later time in the midst of eighty thousand monks who had put on the robes at the meeting of his relatives at Arunavati City, Buddha Sikhi recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

Still at another time in the midst of seventy thousand monks who had become bhikkhus when he tamed Dhanapalaka elephant of Dhanañjaya City, Buddha Sikhī recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

[ 267 ] Future Buddha Gotama as King Arindama received prophecy from Buddha Sikhi.

Meanwhile our Bodhisatta was King Arindama in the city of Paribhutta. When Buddha Sikhi visited the city with his retinue, the king welcomed the Buddha; he paid homage to the Buddha respectfully and invited him to the palace where he performed grand alms-giving befitting his status of lordship, high birth, of wealth and faith (in the Buddha).

He opened his wear-house of clothing and offered the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha several kotis of garments worth a great deal of money. (In common parlance a koti means twenty sets of clothing; here, however, it should be understood that ten pieces make one koti. Aṅguttara Commentary III, p. 270.)

Moreover, he offered the Buddha his state elephant who was possessed of strength, beauty, (auspicious) marks and speed and who was adorned with golden nets and flowers. (Having assessed the value of the elephant with his adornments,) he also offered the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha objects that were permissible to monks. (The cost of these objects was equal to the assessed value of the elephant.)

Then with reference to the Bodhisatta Arindama, Buddha Sikhī declared prophetically: "In the thirtieth aeon from the present one, this King Arindama will indeed become a Buddha, Gotama by name."

Particulars of Buddha Sikhi.

Buddha Sikhi's birthplace was Arunavatī City; his father was King Aruna and his mother Queen Pabhāvatī.

He reigned for seven thousand years; his three palaces were Sucandaka, Giri and Vasabha.

His Chief Consort was Sabbakāmā who had twenty-four thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Atula.

[ 268 ] He renounced the world riding an elephant after seeing the four omens; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Abhibhu Thera and Sambhava Thera; his attendant was Khemaṅkara Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sakhilā Therī and Padumā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a puṇḍarīka.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Sirivaḍḍha and Nanda; his noble female supporters were Cittā Upāsikā and Suguttā Upāsikā.

Buddha Sikhī was seventy cubits tall; he was like a golden column, created as an object of worship; he was beautiful with thirty-two marks of a superman.

Buddha Sikhi's normal physical rays went everywhere day and night uninterruptedly as far as thirty yojanās. (They could travel to illuminate several world-system if he so desired.)

The life-span of Buddha Sikhi's time was seven thousand years and existing for four-fifths of the life-span, he conveyed beingshumans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores.

Causing the 'rain of Dhamma', Buddha Vipassī had all beings drenched with the pure water of Dhamma' let them reach Nibbāna, end of repeated suffering, and with his Disciple-Arahants attained Parinibbāna.

Samvega.

The Buddha's physical frame possessed of eighty minor signs such as red finger and toe, nails and adorned with thirty-two marks of a superman had completely vanished. Unsubstantial and futile are all conditioned things!

[ 269 ] Cetiya.

Buddha Sikhi attained Parinibbana in the park named Assa near Silavati City. The Buddha's relics remained in a mass without dispersing. People of Jambudipa constructed for their worship a memorial cetiya of seven kinds of jewels, three yojanās high.

Here ends Sikhi Buddhavaṃsa

21. VESSABHŪ BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Sikkhī's attainment of Parinibbāna in that very kappa of two Buddhas, the life-span of human beings decreased gradually from seven thousand years down to ten years; then it increased up to asaṅkhyeyya, and when it reached sixty thousand years on its next decline, on complete of his fulfilment of the Perfections, Future Buddha Vessabhū accepting the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Queen Yasavatī, Consort of King Suppatita in the city of Anoma. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Anupama Park.

When the 'Bodhisatta prince was born he uttered triumphant words that were pleasing to people and, on that account, on his naming day, learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Prince Vessabhū (By 'triumphant words' was meant three great words beginning. with "Aggo'ham'asmi lokassa," etc., uttered courageously like the roar of a bull.)

Royal household life.

When he came of age, Bodhisatta Vessabhu lived in three palaces, namely, Ruci, Suruci and Rativaddhana, being entertained and served by thirty thousand female attendants headed by Princess Sucitta and enjoying royal household life for six thousand years.

[ 270 ] Renunciation.

When he had seen the four omens while enjoying royal household life and when Princess Sucitta had given birth to a son named Suppabuddha, Bodhisatta Vessabhū renounced the world riding a golden palanquin to the royal gardens, accepted the robes offered by Brahma and put them on. Thirty-seven thousand men followed his example and became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With those thirty-seven thousand recluses Bodhisatta Vessabhū practised dukkaracariya for six months; on the full-moon day of Vesākha, the day he would become a Buddha, he accepted the milkrice offered by Sirivaddhana, resident of the market-town of Sucitta, partook of it and spent the day time in the local sāla grove. In the evening he went alone to the Mahā Bodhi. On the way he accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Narinda, King of Nagas as soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the (sāla ) Mahā Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka, measuring forty cubits.

Sitting on the Pallaṅka, the Bodhisatta concentrated his energy of four levels and attained Buddhahood in the aforesaid manner.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching. (Dhammābhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Vessabhū stayed in the neighbourhood of Mahā Bodhi Tree for forty-nine days accepting the Brahma's request for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw his half younger brothers, Prince Sona and Prince Uttara who were his future Chief Disciples and who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition; he went through space and descended in Aruna Park near Anupama City; he sent the gardener for the two princes and when, in the midst of the two brothers and their retinues, he delivered the Dhammacakka sermon as previous Buddhas had done several Devas and Brahmas also came to listen Dhamma respectfully. On that occasion eighty thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 271 ] At a later time when Buddha Vessabhu made a tour of big towns in the country and taught Dhamma seventy thousand Devas and humans of his audiences attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at a later time, Buddha Vessabhū in the same city of Anupama eradicated wrong views that were entangled like the meshes of net and highly injurious; in this way he pulled down the 'banner of arrogance' of the heretics and hoisted the 'banner of noble Dhamma'. At the assembly human beings who had gathered in an area of nine yojanās and unlimited number of Devas and Brahmas, he displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire and developing their faith; sixty crores of Devas and men were delighted with 'Elixir of immortality' administered by the Buddha. (That is to say, sixty crores of Devas and humans gained Emancipation.)

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Three occasions of Disciples' meeting (sanNipāta).

There were three meetings of Buddha Vessabhū's Disciples; the first took place on the full-moon day of Magha. At that time in the midst of eighty thousand crores of Arahants who had previously became monks at the meeting of Sona Thera and Uttara Thera, Future Chief Disciples, Buddha Vessabhū recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the first sannipāta.)

At a later time there took place a meeting of thirty-seven thousand recluses of the town of Soreyya; they were those who followed Bodhisatta Vessabhu's example when he renounced the world; but when the Bodhisatta left them and went alone to another place they also moved on to somewhere else; on hearing that the Buddha had delivered the Dhammacakka sermon, they came to Soreyya and paid homage to the Buddha, who taught them Dhamma and made them "Ehi bhikkhus". In the audience consisting of four features the Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the second sannipāta.)

[ 272 ] Still at a later time Buddha Vessabhu visited the city of Narivahana to give blessings to the city's ruler named Upasanta. Hearing of the Buddha's visit King Upasanta and his retinue immediately went out to welcome the Buddha, invited him respectfully and performed a ceremony of grand alms-giving. Having listened to his Dhamma the king was so filled with piety that he renounced the world; following his example sixty thousand of his men became monks themselves. Together with Upasanta they all attained Arahantship. Being surrounded by those monks the Buddha recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was the third sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as King Sudassana received prophecy from Buddha Vessabhū.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was King Sudassana with an appearance fair and pleasing to the eye in the city of Sarabhavati; when Buddha Vessabhū, Lord of the three worlds, visited the city, he listened to the Buddha's Dhamma and became so pleased that, with his folded hands raised to his head, he made a great almsgiving including robes to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha. In the very city of Sarabhavati he had a monastery, called 'Perfumed Chamber', for the Buddha and a thousand encircling monasteries for the Saṃgha built and offered to them.

Since the Bodhisatta was delighted with profoundly with the Dhamma taught by Buddha Vessabhū he desired fervently to become a monk; accordingly he gave away all his royal wealth to the cause of the Buddha's Dispensation and took up in the Buddha's presence the life of a virtuous monk free from idleness day and night. Having become a monk, he acquired moral qualities, observed all thirteen ascetic practices (dhutangas) and lived in the Buddha's Dispensation being happy in fulfilment of the Perfections.

Filled with faith and joy the Bodhisatta monk paid obeisance to Buddha Vessabhu. Then there occurred a great longing in him for Omniscience. Knowing that the Bodhisatta monk had undiminished energy Buddha Vessabhū prophesied: "In the Bhadda Kappa, thirtyfirst aeon from the present one this monk Sudassana will indeed become a Buddha, Gotama by name."

[ 273 ] Having heard Buddha Vessabhū's prophecy Bodhisatta monk Sudassana was overjoyed and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars of Buddha Vessabhu.

Buddha Vessabhu's birthplace was Anoma City; his father was King Suppatita and his mother Queen Yasavatī.

He reigned for six thousand years; his three palaces were Ruci, Suruci and Rativaḍḍhana.

His Chief Consort was Sucittā who had thirty thousand maids of honour; his son was Prince Suppabuddha.

The vehicle he used in renunciation after seeing the four omens was a golden palanquin; he practised dukkaracariya for six months.

His two Chief Disciples were Sona Thera and Uttara Thera; his attendant was Upasanta Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Rāmā Therī and Samālā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a Mahāsāla.

His noble supporters were the wealthy persons Sottika and Rambha; his two female supporters were Gotamī Upāsikā and Sirimā Upāsikā.

Buddha Vessabhū's height was sixty cubits, glorious like a golden column. The rays emitted from various places of his body were particularly bright like the fire on top of a hill at night.

The life-span in Buddha Vessabhū's time was sixty thousand years; he lived for four-fifths of the life-span; rescuing beings such as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsāric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores.

[ 274 ] He explained Dhamma elaborately to several people in accordance with their disposition; having beqeathed the Dhammaboat to cross samsāric waters for the benefit of the posterity, Buddha Vessabhū with his Disciple-Arahants attained Parinibbāna.

Samvega.

Buddha Vessabhu and his Arahants worthy of veneration shown to them by Brahmas, Devas and humans, and monastic buildings where they had physically maintained themselves-all this had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this manner Buddha Vessabhū, Conqueror of the five Māras and Teacher of humans and Devas, attained Parinibbana in Khema Park near Usabhavati City. As has been said before, his relics, according to his resolve, dispersed and reached everywhere in Jambudipa (to be enshrined in cetiya) and became objects of worship by beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Vessabhu Buddhavaṃsa.

22. KAKUSANDHA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Vessabhū's attainment of Parinibbana, when the aeon in which he appeared had come to an end, twenty-nine suññakappas, aeons of no Buddhas, elapsed and there emerged the present Bhadda-kappa of five Buddhas. In this kappa had appeared four Buddhas-Kakusandha, Konāgamana, Kassapa and Gotama. The Buddha yet to come definitely is Metteyya.

The chronicle of Buddha Kakusandha, the first of these five Buddhas, is as follows. The Bhadda-kappa comprises sixty-four antara-kappas; (in the eighth antara-kappa according to the Mahā Rajavaṃsa or in the first antara-kappa according to the Hmannan Rajavaṃsa,) when the human life-span decreased from asankhyeyya to forty thousand years, Kakusandha Bodhisatta, on complete [ 275 ] fulfilment of the Perfections, was reborn in Tusitā. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of a Brahmin woman, Visākha by name, wife of the Purohita Aggidatta who was advisor to King Khemankara of the city of Khemavatī. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Khemavatī Park.

Note:
As has been mentioned above the series of Buddhas from Dīpankara down to Vessabhū belonged to royal families, but Kakusandha Buddha was born in a Brahmin family.
In the society which is composed of four classes of people: aristocrats, brahmins, traders and lowly ones, never is a Buddha conceived in his final existence in the womb of a woman of the latter two classes.
As for aristocrats and Brahmins, sometimes aristocrats enjoy superiority and at other times brahmins do. At a time when people show the highest honour to aristocrats, Bodhisattas are born in their class, for they are considered the best. At other times when people show the greatest honour to the Brahmins, Bodhisattas are born in their families, for they are then supposed to be the foremost.
In this way Buddhas hailed only from aristocratic and brahmanical families; since recognition of the former as the most superior is more frequent, Buddhas are generally aristocrats by birth; and because it is only sometimes that Brahmins gain superiority, Buddhas of Brahmanical birth are fewer. Thus the greater number of aristocratic Buddhas and the smaller number of Brahmin Buddhas should be understood.

[ 276 ] Royal household life.

When the youthful Bodhisatta Kakusandha came of age, he lived in three mansions, namely, Kāma, Kāmavaṇṇa and Kāmasuddhi, being entertained and served by his brahmin wife, Rocini by name, who had thirty thousand brahmin maids, and enjoying a divine-like household life for four thousand years.

Renunciation.

When he had seen the four omens and when Rocinī had given birth to a son named Uttara, Brahmin Kakusandha renounced the world riding a chariot drawn by a thoroughbred and became a recluse. Following his example forty-thousand men became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With those forty thousand recluses, Bodhisatta Kakusandha practised dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full moon of Vesakha, the day he would become a Buddha, he partook of the milk-rice offered by the daughter of a Brahmin, Vajirinda, of the market-town of Vajirinda and spent the daytime in the local acacia grove. In the evening he went alone to the Mahā Bodhi and accepted on the way eight handfuls of grass from Subhadda, a watchman of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the sirisa Mahā Bodhi Tree (which was as big and fair as the aforesaid pātali Mahā Bodhi) measu-ring twenty-six cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the pallaṅka he concentrated his energy of four levels and attained Buddhahood the way mentioned previously.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching (Dhammābhisamaya).

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Kakusandha stayed in the neighbourhood of the sirisa Mahā Bodhi Tree forty-nine days. Having accepted with the request made by the Brahma for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw his companions in renunciation and went to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the town of Makila; when in their midst he [ 277 ] delivered the Dhammacakka sermon as previous Buddhas had done numerous Devas and Brahmas came to listen to it respectfully. At that time forty thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At a later time Buddha Kakusandha displayed the Twin Miracle near a sāla tree close to the city-gate of Kannakujja and taught Dhamma; thirty-thousand crores of Devas and humans penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at a later time another Dhammāhisamaya took place in the following manner. At a Deva shrine not too far away from the town of Khemavatī lived a divine ogre named Naradeva. At the time of propitiation he received in his visible frame honour done to him by people; he was, however, in the habit of catching human beings who through a difficult road approached a big pond in the middle of a huge forest to fetch various species of lotus. If there were no people there he went back to his great forest-abode and caught those who happened to be there and devoured them.

In fact, the road through the forest was notorious for its difficult terrain. At one time, at both ends of the forest, people were discussing among themselves how to get through the wilderness. At that time, after emerging from his Mahā Karuṇāsamāpatti early in the morning Buddha Kakusandha surveyed the world and saw that ogre Nāradeva and those people in his vision of wisdom; so he went through space and, while the people were looking up, displayed various forms of miracle; then he descended into Naradeva's mansion and took a seat on the ogre's splendid couch.

Naradeva became delighted the moment he saw the Buddha coming on his aerial journey and emitting rays of six colours from his body, for he thought to himself: "The Buddha is coming here out of compassion for me." With his attendant ogres he went to the Himalayas and brought back aquatic and terestrial flowers of various hues and scents with which he honoured the Buddha; singing in praise of him who was remaining on the couch, Naradeva stood with his clasped hands touching his forehead in salutation.

[ 278 ] On seeing the Buddha's miracles, the people's minds became serene and they all came to the Buddha and, encircling him paid obeisance to him. By explaining to the ogre how wholesome deeds are related to wholesome results, Buddha Kakusandha made the ogre inspired and by giving a talk on abodes of intense suffering, he made him frightened; thereafter the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths. At that time countless Devas and humans penetrated the Truths and gained Emanicipation.

(This was the third Dhammāhisamaya.)

Single meeting of the Disciples (sanNipāta)

There was only one meeting of Buddha Kakusandha's Disciples. And it took place like this. In the Isipatana Deer Park near the city of Karṇṇakujja on the full moon of Māgha, amidst forty thousand Arahants who had been his companions in renunciation Kakusandha Buddha recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

Future Buddha Gotama as King Khema received prophecy from Buddha Kakusandha.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was King Khema; having made grand offering of bowls and robes to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha and also having offered them such medicinal materials as minerals for preparing eye-ointment etc., and herbs including liquorice among others; he became so immensely pleased with the Dhamma taught by the Buddha that he renounced the world and became a monk in the Buddha's presence. With reference to him, the Buddha prophesied: "This monk Khema will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama in this very Bhadda Kappa."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy, the Bodhisatta Khema became overjoyed and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

[ 279 ] Particulars of Buddha Kakusandha.

Buddha Kakusandha's birthplace was Khemavatī City; his father was Brahmin Aggidatta, Purohita to King Khemankara, and his mother Visakhā, a Brahmin lady.

He lived a household life for four thousand years; his three palaces were Kāma, Kāmavaṇṇa and Kāmasuddhi.

His wife was Rocinī, a Brahmin lady, who had thirty thousand attendants; his son was Uttara.

The vehicle he used in renunciation after seeing the four omens was a chariot drawn by a thoroughbred; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Vidhura Then and Sanjiva Thera; his attendant was Buddhija Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sāmā Therī and Campā Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a sirisa.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Accuta and Sumanā; his noble female supporters were Nanda Upasikāma and Sunanda Upasikāma.

Buddha Kakusandha's height was forty cubits; the rays from his body spread around up to ten yojanās.

The human life-span in his time was forty thousand years; he lived for four-fifths of the life-span, rescuing such beings as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores.

In the world of humans and Devas he opened the 'shop of Dhamma' for the virtuous, male and female alike, and bravely roared a lion's roar: "I am an Omniscient Buddha indeed; The defilements and mental intoxicants with their latent tendencies have all been rooted out from me." After that, with his disciples of the Saṃgha Buddha Kakusandha attained Parinibbāna and became extinct.

[ 280 ] Samvega.

The Buddha who was endowed with a voice of eight qualities¹⁵ voice such as clearness, sweetness, legibilty, pleasantness, firmness, fullness, depth and echo and his two Chief and other Disciples who were possessed of morality that was unbreached, untorn, unmottled free at all times they had all disappeared. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this manner Buddha Kakusandha attained Parinibbāna in Khema Park. In that very Park, as has been said before, a cetiya was erected over the relics of Buddha Kakusandha; it was exactly one yojana high.

Here ends Kakusandha Buddhavaṃsa.

23. KONĀGAMANA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Kakusandha's attainment of Parinibbāna, in the present Bhadda Kappa, the life-span of human beings gradually decreased from forty thousand years to ten years and increased up to asaṅkhyeyya. When it reached thirty thousand years on its next decline, Bodhisatta Konagamana, on his complete fulfilment of the Perfections was reborn in Tusita. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of a Brahmin lady named Uttarā, wife of Yaññadatta Brahmin, in the city of Sobhavatī. When ten months had elapsed he was born in Subhavatī Park.

[ 281 ] At the time of the boy's birth, there fell a heavy shower of gold over the whole of Jambudipa and taking the significance of this event, "coming down of gold from the sky", learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Kanakāgamana (Kanaka means 'gold', āgamana 'coming'; hence Kanakagāmana "the boy for whom gold has come (down)." Owing to its antiquity, the original name Kanakagamana has taken the corrupt form of Konāgamana. Or by means of derivation, the first syllable ka is changed into ko, na into ṇa and the final ka elided.

Royal household life.

When the boy Koṇāgamana came of age, he lived in three palatial mansions of Tusita, Santusita and Santuṭṭha, being entertained and served by his wife Rucigatta, a Brahmin lady, and her host of sixteen thousand Brahmin women and enjoying a divinelike household life for three thousand years.

Renunciation.

When Koṇāngamana Brahmin had seen the four omens while living a household life and when his wife Rucigattā had given birth to a son named Satthavāha, he renounced the world, riding an elephant. Thirty thousand men, following his example, also renounced the world.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With his thirty thousand recluses Koṇāgamana practised dukkaracariya; on the full moon of Vesākha, the day on which he would become a Buddha, he partook of the milk-rice offered by Aggisona, daughter of Aggisona, and spent the daytime in the local grove of acacia. In the evening he went alone to the Mahābodhi and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Jaṭatinduka, a watchman of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the (udumbara ) Mahā Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring twenty cubits. Sitting crosslegged on the pallaṅka he concentrated his energy of four levels and, as has been said previously, attained Buddhahood.

[ 282 ] Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching (Dhammābhisamaya).

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Konāgamana stayed in the neighbourhood of the Mahā Bodhi Tree for forty nine days. Having accepted the Brahma's request for his teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first, and saw the thirty thousand recluses who were his companions in renunciation and immediately went through space to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the city of Sudassana. Staying in the middle of those recluses, when he delivered the Dhammacakka sermon which was taught traditionally by previous Buddhas, several Devas and Brahmas came to listen. At that time thirty thousand crores of Devas and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At a later time when Buddha Konāgamana displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire near the sāla tree close to the city-gate of Sundara, and eradicated the wrong views and taught Dhamma, twenty thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammāhisamaya.)

After displaying the Twin Miracle when Buddha Koṇāgamana went up to Tāvatiṃsa and staying on the stone-slab placed at the foot of the pāricchattaka tree and taught the seven books of Abhidhammā to Devas and Brahmas who had assembled there from the tenthousand world-system. At that time ten thousand crores of them attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Single occasion of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

The only meeting of Buddha Koṇāgamana's Disciples took place like this. When staying in a park named Surindadeva near the city of Sundaravati, the Buddha taught Dhamma to Princes Bhiyyosa and Uttara who were to become his Chief Disciples, together with thirty thousand strong retainers and called them, "Come, monks", they all [ 283 ] became "Ehi bhikkhus" and attained Arahantship. In the middle of those thirty thousand Arahants on the full moon of Magha Buddha Konagamana recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was how the only sannipāta took place.)

Future Buddha Gotama as King Pabbata received prophecy from Buddha Koṇāgamana.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was King Pabbata in the city of Mithila; he was a powerful ruler associated with strong allies. Hearing that Buddha Koṇāgamana had come to his city, he welcomed the Buddha with his retinue and army, invited him respectfully and performed a ceremony of grand alms-giving. He also requested the Buddha to observe vassa in his city and looked after the Buddha and his Saṃgha for the three months of the rainy season. Besides, he offered the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha, cotton cloth, silk cloth, woollen cloth, golden sandals and many other things made in Pattunna country and Cina country. The Buddha then prophesied of him: In this very Bhadda Kappa this King Pabbata will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta King Pabbata was so pleased that he firmly resolved to fulfil the Ten Perfections even more energetically.

Since he was a man who had been seeking Omniscience he made a great offering of gifts to Buddha Koṇāgamana, renounced his magnificent kingship and became a monk in the presence of the Buddha.

Particulars of Buddha Koṇagamana.

Buddha Koṇāgamana's birthplace was Sobhavatī City ruled over by King Sobha; his father was Brahmin Yaññadatta and his mother Uttarā, a Brahmin lady.

He reigned for three thousand years; he lived in three palatial mansions: Tusita, Santusita and Santuṭṭha.

[ 284 ] His wife was Rucigattā, a Brahmin lady having a retinue of sixteen thousand Brahmin women; his son was Satthavāha.

He renounced the world riding an elephant after seeing the four omens; he practised dukkaracariya for six months.

His two Chief Disciples were Bhiyyosa Thera and Uttara Thera; his attendant was Sotthija Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Samuddā Therī and Uttarā Therī; his Bodhi Tree was an udumbara.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Ugga and Somadeva; his female supporters were Sivalā Upāsikā and Sāmā Upāsikā.

Buddha Koṇāgamana's height was thirty cubits; he was adorned with the rays of six colours like the pure gold in the goldsmith's crucible.

The life-span during Buddha Konagamana's time was thirty thousand years. For four-fifths of the life-span he lived, rescuing beings-humans, Devas and Brahmas-from the waters of samsāra to place them on the shores of Nibbāna.

In order that beings could stay and worship on the cetiyaplatform of Insight Wisdom (Vipassanā Nāna Paññā), Buddha Konagamana constructed the 'cetiya of thirty-seven constituents of Enlightenment' (Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma), that was adorned with the banner of the Four Noble Truths, and made the 'bouquet of Dhamma', after which with his Saṃgha Disciples he attained Parinibbana and became extinct.

Samvega.

Buddha Koṇāgamana's Disciples who had accomplished in the exercise of supernatural powers and Buddha Koṇāgamana who had expounded supramundane Dhamma all of them had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile are all conditioned things!

[ 285 ] Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Konagamana who had penetrated the Four Noble Truths and others Dhammas that should be known attained Parinibbāna in the pleasance named Pabbata. As has been mentioned before, his relics dispersed in accordance with his resolve, reached everywhere in Jambudīpa and were paid homage by beings humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Koṇāgamana Buddhavaṃsa.

24. KASSAPA BUDDHAVAṂSA.

After Buddha Koṇagamana's attainment of Parinibbāna in this very Bhadda Kappa, the life-span of human beings gradually decreased from thirty thousand years down to ten years and increased up to asaṅkhyeyya; when it reached twenty thousand years on its next decline Bodhisatta Kassapa was reborn in Tusita. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Dhanavatī, a Brahmin lady and wife of Brahmadatta Brahmin in the city of Bārānasī ruled over by King Kikī. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Isipatana Deer Park.

On his naming day learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Kassapa, for he was a descendant of the clan of that name.

Royal household life.

When the boy Kassapa came of age he lived in three mansions, Hamsa, Yasa and Sirinanda, being entertained and served by his wife Sunandā, a Brahmin lady, who had forty eight thousand women as attendants and enjoying a divine-like household life for two thousand years.

[ 286 ] Renunciation.

When he had seen the four omens while living a household life and when his wife Sunandā had given birth to a son named Vinjitasena, he was stirred with religious emotion and he thought to himself; "I shall renounce the world even today."

No sooner had he thought than the Bodhisatta's mansion rotated like a potter's wheel and flew up to the sky and, like the moon coming out in the company of stars in autumn and producing a very delightful light, the mansion moved on with hundreds of people accompanying it as though adorning the vault of heavens, as though exhibiting its glory, as though attracting spectators and captivating their hearts and as though lending splendour to the tree-tops. Finally it came down to the ground with the nigrodha Bodhi Tree in its centre.

Then the Bodhisatta got down from the mansion; standing on the ground, he accepted the robes offered by the Brahma and put them on. The Bodhisatta's wife and female attendants also got down from the mansion and went to a distance of forty usabhas (half a gāvuta) where they erected temporary shelters like barracks of an army. Following the Bodhisatta's example, all the men who had come along with him renounced the world.

Attainment of Buddhahood.

With the recluses who had followed his example, Bodhisatta Kassapa practised dukkaracariya; on the full moon of Vesākha, the day on which he would become a Buddha, he partook of the milkrice offered by his wife Sunanda and spent the daytime in the local grove of acasia. In the evening he proceeded alone to the Mahā Bodhi and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Soma, a watchmen of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the Mahā Bodhi Tree, there arose the Aparājita Pallaṅka measuring fifteen cubit feet. Sitting cross-legged on the pallaṅka, he concentrated his energy of four factors and as has been said before he attained Buddhahood.

[ 287 ] Five occasions of the Buddha's teaching (Dhammabhisamaya).

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Kassapa stayed in the vicinity of Mahā Bodhi Tree for forty-nine days. Having complied with the Brahma's request for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw the crore of recluses, his companions in renunciation who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition and immediately went through space to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the city of Bāranasī. Staying in the middle of the recluses when the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka sermon following the tradition of previous Buddhas, several Devas and Brahmas came to listen respectfully. At that time two crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammābhisamaya.)

At a later time when Buddha Kassapa taught Dhamma while touring from town to town, from village to village, and from market-town to market-town, ten thousand crores of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammābhisamaya.)

Still at a later time when Buddha Kassapa displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire and taught Dhamma near the asana tree close to the gate of Sundara city and five thousand crores of Devas and humans penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the third Dhammābhisamaya.)

Having displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire, when Buddha Kassapa, in the celestial assembly hall named Sudhamma in Tāvatiṃsa, taught Abhidhammā of seven books in order to benefit Devas and Brahmas who had assembled there respectfully to listen to the Dhamma which was especially intouch for the Deva, who had been his mother. At that time three thousand crores of Devas and Brahmas penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the fourth Dhammābhisamaya.)

[ 288 ] There was once an ogre who was powerful like the one named Naradeva of Buddha Kakusandha's lifetime. He was well known by the same name of Naradeva. Assuming the appearance of a king ruling in a city outside Jambudipa and also assuming the king's voice, behaviour and other characteristics, he killed the king and devoured him; then he ruled over the whole kingdom slaying many people for food. He also indulged into debauchery pleasures with women.

When intelligent queens, maids of honour and members of retinue discovered that "This man is not our master, not our king. He is indeed a yakkha," he felt awkward, killed and devoured them all and moved on to another city where he made himself king in the aforesaid manner.

Killing and devouring people in this way, Naradeva arrived at Sundara City. Having heard of his reign of terror, the citizens became scared of the danger of death and fled from their city. Seeing the tumultous situation of the people, Buddha Kassapa went and stood before the yakkha. When he saw the Buddha standing in front of him, he defied the Buddha by roaring thunderously; unable to frighten the Buddha he approach him for refuge. He also put forward some questions which the Buddha answered to his satisfaction. When the Buddha admonished him and gave a sermon innumerable Devas and humans, who had assembled there respectfully to listen to it, penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the fifth Dhammabhisamaya.)

The single occasion of the Disciples' meeting (sannipāta).

The meeting of Buddha Kassapa's Disciple-Arahants took place just once like this. In the city of Bārāṇasī, when Tissa, son of the Purohita, saw the thirty-two marks of a superman on the body of Bodhisatta Kassapa, he remembered his father's word that "only those who would become Buddhas can have such marks"; as he had not one iota of doubt about it, he thought to himself: "This Kassapa will become a Buddha through supreme renunciation. I shall work hard to be free from suffering of saṃsāra, after becoming a monk in [ 289 ] the presence of that Buddha Kassapa". Accordingly he went to the Himalayas and became an ascetic even before-Bodhisatta Kassapa renounced the world. The ascetics of his company were twenty thousand in number.

Later on when he heard that "Kassapa after renouncing the world, has now become a Buddha", he left the Himalayas with his company of twenty thousand ascetics, and requested for monkhood in the presence of the Buddha. Being pronounced then by the Buddha, "Come, monks", Tissa the ascetic with his twenty thousand companions became "Ehi bhikkhus" and attained Arahantship. In the assembly of these twenty thousand monks on the full moon of Magha Buddha Kassapa recited the Ovāda Pātimokkha.

(This was the only sannipāta.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Jotipāla the Youth received prophecy from Buddha Kassapa.

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was famous as Jotipāla the Youth; he recited the Veda texts continuously, learned various hymns by heart, reached perfection in the Vedas and was accomplished in treatises on prognostication that explain physical marks of a superman, etc., treatises on legends that narrate ancient tales and all arts and crafts that had been handed down by generation after generation of teachers. No less accomplished, but fully wellversed and skilful was he in terrestrial science and celestial science.

Jotipala was an intimate friend of Ghatikāra the Potter, who being a noble supporter of Buddha Kassapa was greatly devoted to the Three Gems and famous as an Anagami devotee. Ghatikāra the Potter took him to Buddha Kassapa.

After listening to the Buddha's Dhamma, Jotipāla became a monk in the Buddha's presence. Highly energetic, clever in performing duties big and small, and not negligent in any matter associated with the three trainings of morality, concentration, and wisdom, he shouldered responsibilities in the Buddha's Dispensation.

[ 290 ] Having learned the Teachings (Pariyatti) of the Buddha comprising nine divisions, he glorified the Buddha's Dispensation. Discerning Jotipala's aforesaid marvellous qualities, Buddha Kassapa prophesied of him: "This Jotipāla bhikkhu will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama even in this Bhadda Kappa."

On hearing the Buddha's prophecy the noble bhikkhu Jotipāla became overjoyed and resolved to fulfil the ten perfections even more energetically.

On account of his only wish which was attainment of Omniscience, our Bodhisatta who would become the inconceivable Lord of the three worlds he kept himself far away from all demeritorious deeds that are to be avoided throughout saṃsāra, repeated existences, and put efforts unflinchingly to perform meritorious deeds, which ordinary people can hardly do, in absolute fulfilment of the Ten Perfections.

Note:
From the above-quoted Buddhavaṃsa Text, it seems that Ghatikara the Potter brought his friend, Jotipāla the Youth to Kassapa Buddha without difficulty. In reality, however, he did not succeed easily in so doing. He had to persuade him again and again and finally used force by dragging him along by his hair. This is mentioned in the Ghatikāra Sutta, Raja Vagga of the Majjima Pannāsa. The detailed story of Ghaṭikāra and that of Jotipāla should be known from that Sutta.

Particulars of Buddha Kassapa.
Buddha Kassapa's birthplace was Barānasī City where King Kiki reigned; his father was Brahmin Brahmadatta and his mother Dhanavatī, a Brahmin lady.

He lived household life for two thousand years; his three mansions were Hamsa, Yasa and Sirinanda.

His wife was Sunandā, a Brahmin lady who had forty-eight thousand Brahmin women as attendants; his son was Vijitasena.

[ 291 ] The vehicle in which he renounced the world was a mansion; he practised dukkaracariya for seven days.

His two Chief Disciples were Tissa Thera and Bharadvaja Thera; his attendant was Sabbamitta Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Anulā Therī and Uruvelā Therī; his Bodhi Tree was a nigrodha.

His noble supporters were Sumangala and Ghatikāra the Potter; his female supporters were Vijitasenā Upāsikā and Bhaddā Upāsikā.

Buddha Kassapa's height was twenty cubits; he was glorious like forceful lightning and the full moon surrounded by planets and stars.

The life-span in his time was twenty thousand; he lived for fourfifths of the life-span rescuing numerous beings from samasric waters to place them on the shores of Nibbāna.

Buddha Kassapa created the big pond of Pariyatti Dhamma for several beings--humans, Devas and Brahmas and gave the unguent of Catu Pārisuddhi Sīla for them to beautify their minds, made them put on the garments of Hiri and Ottappa, distributed among them the flowers of thirty seven Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, and placed the spotless mirror of Sotāpatti Magga Ñāna so that they could see clearly for themselves distinguishing between faulty things and faultless things, between acts of merit and acts of unwholesomeness. He placed the mirror as though he were inviting those who were wandering in search of Nibbāna near the aforesaid pond, "Behold (yourselves in) all kinds of adornment."

By providing those who listened to his admonishment with the raiments of the five precepts, ten precepts and the four Catupārisuddhi Sīla so that they could fight against their enemy of defilement; by making them fasten their coats of mail of the four mundane and five supramundane jhānas; by making them wear the leather robe of Sati and Sampajañña; by supplying them with the full military equipment of sublime energy of four levels by giving them the shield of four Satipatthānas so that they could defend [ 292 ] themselves from various enemy defilements; (by making his army of Disciples) wield the lances of very sharp Vipassana Ñāna and gave them the sword of Magga Paññā the swords that had been sharpened on the whet stone of vīriya; by handing to them the supramundane precepts so that they could eradicate their inclinations to associate with defilements; by giving them various dressing articles of three Vijjās and six Abhiññānas having fashioned the crowning flower of supramundane Fruitions so that they could adorn and beautify themselves with; and by making a big cluster of the flowers of nine supramundane Dhammas and together with it he gave them the white umbrella of Arahatta phala so that they could protect themselves against the sun of demerits, Buddha Kassapa created the great bloom of the eightfold Magga leading happily to the haven of Nibbāna. That Buddha Kassapa and his numerous Disciple-Arahants attained Parinibbāna and came to the end of his final exitstence.

Samvega.

That Buddha Kassapa, the embodiment of unmeasured qualities, whom others could hardly approach; the gem of Dhamma taught by that Buddha, the Dhamma that was in a position to extend its bold invitation saying, "Come, have a look and try it as a practice."; the gem of Saṅghā, the Order of Disciples who were most excellent, for they had well practised that Gem of Dhamma-all this had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya.

In this way Buddha Kassapa, Conqueror of the five Māras, Teacher of humans and Devas, attained Parinibbāna in a great park called Setavya near Setavya City, in the country of Kāsi. People of Jambudīpa unanimously held a meeting and for worship erected a cetiya with bricks each brick to lay externally cost a crore (of money) and each brick to lay internally five millions; (as has been said above) the cetiya was one yojana high.

Here ends Kassapa Buddhavaṃsa

[ 293 ] A brief account of prophecy in verse form.

Our Bodhisatta had thus received the prophecy predicting his Buddhahood from the former twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dipaṅkara and ending with Kassapa and this has been composed briefly in the Dhammarasi Pyo (vv. 7,8 and 9). (The author then gives pertinent extracts from the pyo which we leave untranslated.)

SUPPLEMENT

Brief statement of Future Buddha Gotama's lives.

As has been narrated above, Future Buddha Gotama received the prophecy from the twenty-four Buddhas ranging from Dipaṅkara to Kassapa. His lives in which the prophecy was declared may be classified as follows.

Five lives as a hermit.

(a) After receiving the first definite prophecy as Sumedha the Hermit from Buddha Dipaṅkara, he heard the same prophecy
(b) as Jatila the Hermit from Buddha Nārada,
(c) as Susima the Hermit from Buddha Atthadassī,
(d) as Mangala the Hermit from Buddha Siddhattha, and
(e) as Sujāta the Hermit from Buddha Tissa.

Thus he received the prophecy as a hermit five times.

Nine lives as a monk.

The event also occurred when he was born:
(a) as Universal Monarch Vijitāvī and became a monk in Buddha Kondañña's presence,
(b) as Brahmin Suruci and became a monk in Buddha Mangala's presence,
(c) as Brahmin Uttara and became a monk in Buddha Sumedha's presence,
[ 294 ] (d) as Universal Monarch and became a monk in Buddha Sujāta's presence,
(e) as King Vijitāvī and became a monk in Buddha Phussa's presence,
(f) as King Sudassana and became a monk in Buddha Vessabhū's presence,
(g) as King Khema and became a monk in Buddha Kakusandha's presence,
(h) as King Pabbata and became a monk in Buddha Konāgamana's presence, and
(i) as Jotipāla Brahmin youth and became a monk in Buddha Kassapa's presence.

Thus he received the prophecy as a monk nine times.

Five lives as a lay man.

He received the prophecy also
(a) as a lay man, Brahmin Atideva, from Buddha Revata,
(b) as a lay man, Brahmin Ajita, from Buddha Sobhita
(c) as a lay man, the wealthy Jatila, from Buddha Padumuttara,
(d) as a lay man, Kassapa Brahmin youth, from Buddha Piyadassī and
(e) as a lay man, King Arindama, from Buddha Sikhī.

Thus he received the prophecy as a lay man five times.

Two lives as a Nāga.

He received the prophency also
(a) as Atula Nāga King from Buddha Sumanā, and
(b) as another Nāga King, also named Atula, from Buddha Vipassī

Thus he received prophecy twice as a Nāga.

[ 295 ] Three different lives.
(a) In one life as a Sakka, King of Devas, he received the prophecy from Buddha Dhammadassī,
(b) in another life as a warrior king of ogres, he did so from Buddha Anomadassī, and
(c) still in another life as a lion king from Buddha Paduma,

Thus he received the prophecy in three different lives.

Rare chance of encountering a Buddha Dispensation.

In this way throughout the duration of four asankhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons in which our Future Buddha Gotama was fulfiling the Perfections, it was only in twenty-four existences from Buddha Dipaṅkara's Dispensation to Buddha Kassapa's that he encountered a Buddha's Dispensation. Bearing this in mind, we should profoundly realize the rarity of such an encounter and should strive to make the most of the opportunity we are blessed with.

Rarity of a monkhood.

Even a being so great as the Bodhisatta who had received the definite prophecy from Buddha Dīpankara had witnessed only twenty-four Dispensations which were very few if we take into consideration that long duration). Even in those twenty-four Dispensation, it was only in nine that he obtained monkhood. Judging from this, it is clear that monkhood is a rarity as it is said in the Texts, "Pabbajitabhāvo dullabho." "The state of a monk is hard to achieve." Monkhood which proves to be so difficult for a Bodhisatta, who had received the prophecy, to attain will be all the more so for ordinary persons.

A Dullabha monk.

Nowadays in Buddhist society some thoughtful people who have some offdays while toiling to earn a living put on robes temporary lest their leisure should go futile; they would make use of it to their [ 296 ] advantage. Such a monk is called "dullabha monk." The meaning is: though they could not live long as a monk, the state of which is very difficult to obtain, they try to take it up for a short period.

If one fails to contemplate its meaning one is bound to have the wrong notion that only such a temporary bhikkhu is a "dullabha bhikkhu" but he who, after becoming a novice in his younger days, attains monkhood in due course (a monk who has all along been in the robe since his childhood) is not. Because of this notion people are inclined to show their generosity to a dullabha bhikkhu more than to a lifelong monk who have been ordained from their twentieth year. If a temporary monkhood is difficult to achieve it goes without saying that a permanent monkhood is for more inaccessible.

Govermnent servants and monkhood.

Some would say like this:
Since there is a rule 'Na bhikkhave rājabhato pabbājetabbo', (Monks, royal attendants should not be made monks), even though they would make a request for monkhood during their spare time, it is not permissible for the Saṃgha to grant their request it is against the Vinaya, Government servants nowadays should not be ordained.

It is not proper to say thus either. In the Commentary on Rājabhata Vatthu, Mahā-Khandhaka of the Vinaya Mahāvagga Aṭṭhakathā, it is explained: "Although originally a royal attendant, he who now has returned his salaries to the king; he who has handed over his post either to his son or to his brother; and has inform the king that he is no longer in royal service; he who has fully performed his duties for which he is paid; and he who got the permission to become a monk willingly given by his rightful employer, the king; it is lawful to ordain them all. In view of this explanation, if pensioners nowadays want to become a monk permanently (a monk for life) they should do so after returning their pensions to the Government or after being given permission willingly from the Government saying: "You may become a monk 'if you wish.'

[ 297 ] The rule that "Royal attendants should not be made monks" has been promulgated only with reference to those who took the shelter of the Sasana so that they might escape the king's employ. (This should be known from the Pāḷi text of the Rajabhata Vatthu.) Government servants today have no intention of escaping service; in fact, they are even worried lest they should be dismissed by incurring the employer's displeasure: he would ask: "Why should you become a monk?" Therefore those who become temporary bhikkhus are not against the rule of the Vinaya Mahāvagga provided they do so after getting permission from the authorities concerned.

Even if the one ordained had the intention to escape Government service as is referred to by the rule, it is those bhikkhus conferring ordination upon him that violate the rule and not the one ordained who enjoys valid monkhood; it is thus clearly maintained in the Vinaya Texts.

Another way of thinking is as follows.

Even a great being like our Bodhisatta who had received the definite prophecy happened to be a bhikkhu only nine times despite the fact that he had encountered twenty-four Buddhas and from this one is likely to say: "Rare is an achievement of monkhood." Be that as it may. But, if you take into consideration the statements in the Buddhavaṃsa that four hundred thousand Arahants accompanied Dipaṅkara Buddha when entering into Rammavati City for alms-food, and that there were one hundred thousand Arahants on the first occasion of the three meetings, as the number of Arahants was so great, one can hold that it may not be hard to become a monk.

The saying that "Rare is an achievement of monkhood" means "it is seldom that circumstances are favourable for such an event. Each time the Bodhisatta encountered a Buddha's Dispensation he hardly had access to monkhood because circumstances were not favourable. Those numerous Arahants in the lifetime of Dīpankara Buddha were the ones who had favourable circumstances not only to become bhikkhus but to become Arahants. In any endeavour, it is difficult to get a result under when circumstances are not favourable; [ 298 ] on the other hand, achievement of a result is easy underfavourable circumstance.

It was because they had been endowed with the Perfections fulfilled in their past existences and with all other factors leading to Arahantship that they became not only monks but also Arahants.

In the Bālapandita Sutta, Suññāta Vagga of the Uparipañnāsa (Majjhima Nikaya) there is a simile of a blind tortoise in connection with the saying "Manussattabhavo dullabho," "Rare is life as a human being". Suppose a man throws a yoke which has only one hole into the sea. That yoke would float adrift to the west if blown by the east wind and to the east if blown by the west wind; to the south if blown by the north wind and to the north if blown by the south wind. In the sea is a tortoise with both eyes blind and it comes up to the surface of the sea every hundredth year. The chance of getting its head into the hole of the drifting yoke is rare indeed. For a being who has been suffering in the woeful abode in one of his existences, it is more than a hundred times difficult to be reborn as a human being. Other Pall texts also contain explanations that a human life is difficult to achieve.

While on the one hand the rarity of birth as a human being is thus taught, there is teaching on the other hand in such books as the Apadana, the Vimanavatthu, etc., that human and divine bliss can be attained for several existences even as a result of the gift of a single flower; this may lead to the impression that "human life is not difficult to gain but easy." The Apadana and the like are delivered concerning those who are unable to be reborn as humans for lack of agreeable resources; the Balapandita and such discourses are given concerning the possibility of rebirth in several human existences through the gift of a flower; the rarity of monkhood is to be viewed in the same manner.

With regard to human existence, though it may be taken (if one does not contemplated deeply) that it is not hard to become a human being in view of the fact that the world's population is growing day after day, it may be realized that the number of beings in the four woeful states is far greater than that of human beings; nay, even in the animal world alone there are numberless spieces; if we take just [ 299 ] the number of ants alone, when compared with that of humans, it exceeds the latter beyond comparison. Judging from the countless number of beings in the four woeful states as well as from the limited number of humans, it is obvious that rebirth in the human world is indeed very rare.

Similarly it is difficult to join the Saṃgha each time there arises a Buddha's Dispensation in the world. Those who have potential qualities to become bhikkhus in the Dispensation of an individual Buddha become not only bhikkhus but also Arahants; therefore the number of such persons is considerable. But this should not lead one to believe that it is easy to attain monkhood just because they happen to be congregated in the presence of each Buddha under favourable circumstances.

In other words, he who is endowed with two factors is likely to become a monk: (1), birth in a Buddha's Dispensation which is hard to come by Buddhuppāda dullabha," and (2) "life of a human being which is hard to occur", manussatta dullabha." There is absolutely no possibility of becoming a monk in the absence of a Buddha's Dispensation though one may be a human; There is absolutely not such possibility if one is a Deva, Sakka, Brahma or a being of a woeful abode even though there is Dispensation of a Buddha. Of these two events, birth in a Buddha's Dispensation called Buddhuppāda navama¹⁶ is harder to happen. Only when there appears a buddha can there be his Dispensation; and to appear as a Buddha, it takes one at least four asaṅkhyeyya and a hundred thousand aeons even after receipt of the prophecy predicting one's definite Buddhahood, and in so long a period one is to fulfil the Perfections assiduously with the aforesaid four modes of development. When there appears a Buddha at long last, and his Dispensation shines forth, but if one is not born a human being or even when thus born if one encounters other hindrances, one cannot become a bhikkhu. Taking this seriously into consideration it may be said that monkhood is rarer than witnessing a Buddha's Dispensation in the world.

[ 300 ] Those who as a result of their meritorious deeds have the two factors of witnessing the Dispensation and of being a man, which are both difficult to obtain, should not find formidable hardships in their way to monkhood which is brought about by the two factors. Though it seems that accessibility to monkhood is simple because crores of Arahants in the lifetime of Buddha Dīpankara had possessed the two factors namely, a Buddha's Dispensation and a human existence, it is really difficult to have these immediate causes for monkhood, hence the saying: "Rare indeed is monkhood."

The Bodhisatta, Sumedha the Hermit, before seeing Buddha Dīpankara and while in his youth, had engaged in generosity by giving away all his possessions, in renunciation by going forth from household life to houseless state, in morality by observing the precepts as an ascetic and in samatha meditation by putting efforts to attain Jhāna and Abhinñāṅa; having done so he received the definite prophecy from Buddha Dipaṅkara and that was followed by contemplating the ten Perfections and exertion and fulfilment of the Perfections beginning with Dāna through the aforesaid four modes of development that lasted four asankhyeyya and a hundred thousand kappa up to his existence as Prince Vessantara.

In fulfilling the ten Perfections, (as mentioned in the Atthasālini, and the Pātha Jātaka Commentary) with regard to Dāna Pāramī, the existences in which he performed Dāna was numberless as he had done so when he was Brahmin Akitti, Brahmin Sankha, King Dhanañjaya, King Mahā Sudassana, Purohita Mahā Govinda, King Nimi, Prince Canda Kumāra, the wealthy Visayha, King Sivi and Prince Vessantara, etc., What are particularly mentioned in those commentaries are: that the generosity shown by the Bodhisatta as the wise Hare at the sacrifice of his life was the Highest Perfection of Generosity (Paramattha Dāna Pāramī).

With regard to Sīla Pāramī, the existences in which he observed morality are numberless as he had done so when he was Nāga King Campeyya, Nāga King Bhūridatta, Elephant King Chaddanta, Prince Jayadisa, Prince Alinasattu, etc., In particular, his observance of morality at the sacrifice of his life while he was Nāga King Sankhapāla was the Highest Perfection of Morality (Paramattha Sīla Pāramī).

[ 301 ] With regard to Nekkhamma Pāramī, the existences in which he renounced the world are numberless as he had done so leaving behind his kingdom when he was Prince Hatthipāla, Ayoghara the Wise, etc., In Particular, his renunciation of the kingly wealth that had come to him when he was Cūla Sutasoma and which he found loathsome as spittle absolutely without attachment, was the Highest Perfection of Renunciation (Paramattha Nekkhamma Pāramī).

With regard to Paññā Pāramī, the existences in which he fulfilled the Perfection of Wisdom were numberless as he had done so when he was the wise Vidhura, Mahā Govinda, Kudāla, Araka, Mahosadha, etc., In particular, his ability to assert (by means of his wisdom) that there was a snake in the leather bag (without seeing it with his own eyes) when he was Senaka the Wise of Sattubhasta Jātaka was the Highest Perfection of Wisdom (Paramattha Paññā Pāramī).

With regard to Viriya Pāramī, the existences in which he fulfilled the Perfection of Energy were unlimited. In particular, his effort put forth in swimming in the great ocean as Prince Mahā Janaka of Mahā Janaka Jātaka was the Highest Perfection of Energy (Paramattha Viriya Pāramī).

In the Khantivāda Jātaka, as Khantīvadi the ascetic, his forbearance without anger of the chopping off his limbs big and small by King Kalābu was the Highest Perfection of Forbearance (Paramattha Khantī Pāramī).

In the Mahā Sutasoma Jātaka, as King Sutasoma, his keeping of promise and being true to his word given to the cannibal Porisāda, by returning to him, sacrificing his life, was the Highest Perfection of Truthfulness (Paramattha Sacca Pāramī).

In the Mūgapakkha (Temiya) Jātaka, (as Prince Temiya) his maintenance of resolve (to keep silent) sacrificing his life when he was subjected to test of endurance, sometimes mildly and at other times severely, for sixteen long years was the Highest Perfection of Resolution (Paramatta Adhitthāna Pāramī).

[ 302 ] In the Ekarāja Jātaka (or in Suvannasāma Jātaka), his goodwill directed towards the malicious king (as well as towards lions, tigers and other beasts) was the Highest Perfection of Loving-kindness (Paramattha Mettā Pāramī).

In the Lomahamsa Jātaka, his being equally indifferent to all treatment such as the spitting of mucus, phlegm and saliva on him by village children or the honour done to him with flowers, scents, etc., (by village elders) was the Highest Perfection of Equanimity (Paramattha Upekkhā Pāramī).

The narration by the Commentators of these existences in which the ten Perfections were fulfilled are reproduced from their respectives stories of the Pātha Jātaka. A study of these stories shows that all the stories except five occurred in the present kappa.

The five exceptional ones are:
1. Seriva Vānija Jātaka, Appaṇṇaka Vagga, Eka Nipāta. (This story originated five kappas ago as is evidenced by the following sentence read in the Commentary: Atīte ito pañcame kappe bodhisatto seriva raṭṭhe seriva nāmako kacchapuṭavānijo ahosi, "In the fifth aeon reckoned from the present one in the country of Seriva the Bodhisatta was a hawker named also Seriva who roamed about with bags on his shoulder selling beads".
2. Lomahamsa Jātaka, Litta Vagga, Eka Nipāta. (This story originated ninety-one kappas ago as is evidenced by the following commentarial statement: Atīte eka navuti kappamatthake bodhisatto bahirakam tapam vīmamsissāmī ti ājivaka-pabbajjam pabbajitvā acelako ahosi, "In the ninety-first aeon reckoned from the present one, the Bodhisatta was a naked ascetic, having taken up the life of an ājīvaka in order to investigate heretical asceticism."
[ 303 ] 3. Araka Jātaka, Santhava Vagga, Duka Nipāta.(This story originated seven kappas ago as is evidenced by the following commentarial statement in the concluding portion of the Jātaka: Evaṃ bodhisatto aparihīnajjhāno brahmaloke nibbattitvā sattasaṃvaṭṭavivaṭṭakappe na imaṃ lokam puna āgamāsi, "In this way the Bodhisatta did not fall off Jhāna but was reborn in the Brahma abode and did not come to the human world for the period in which the kappa dissolved seven times and evolved seven times."
4. Kesava Jātaka, Cūla Kunāla Vagga, Catukka Nipāta. This story originated five hundred and seventy kappas ago.
5. Baka Jātaka, Kukkura Vagga, Sattaka Nipāta. This story originated also five hundred and seventy kappas ago.

These two Jātakas of Kesava and Baka are the stories between which there was no intervening period of existence. The stories given in detail in the Commentary may be retold as follows: In the Kesava Jātaka, Kesava was first an ascetic and on his death became Baka Brahmā. That Baka Brahmā was reborn in Vehapphala Abode, first, in living for five hundred Mahā Kappas. When his life there came to an end he was reborn in Subhakinha Abode, living for sixty-four Mahā Kappas. Again, when his life there came to an end he was reborn in Ābhassara Abode where he lived for eight Mahā Kappas; as a Brahma he held a wrong view according to the Commentary. This shows that he attained Ābhassara Abode only after passing through five hundred kappas in Vehapphala and sixty-four kappas in Subhakinha totalling five hundred and sixty-four kappas. It is said that he held the wrong view when he reached Ābhassara Abode; and although there is no mention as to in which of the eight aeons in that abode that he did so, by taking the two Jātakas together, it may be estimated that about five hundred and seventy aeons have passed before he started harbouring the view that happened to be wrong.

[ 304 ] Generations of teachers are of the belief that the text of any Jātaka in which the Commentator does not refer to the time of its origin in kappa, saying "In such and such an aeon reckoned from the present one," but which simply says "atīte" ("Once upon a time") belongs to this aeon. On the authority of this belief, the stories in the Aṭṭhasālini and Pāṭha Jātaka Commentary originated in the present kappa, for they only have the simpler word "atīte" with regard to the time of the Bodhisatta's rebirth. But all the stories belonging to this kappa cannot be told; they are too numerous. The stories told are only those that have relationship with the present episodes. The number of the stories left untold is far greater.

If only a few pertinent stories are delivered out of those innumerable ones that happened in this kappa, it follows that the stories of his fulfilment of the Perfections which had not been dealt with must also be countless; besides, considering that the existences in which the Bodhisatta fulfilled the Perfections during the period of four asankhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons which cannot be calculated in terms of kappas (not to speak of in terms of existences) before the present one, their task of fulfilling the Perfections is immensely formidable for ordinary persons.

On the other hand, if one thinks of to the Bodhisattas that these great beings who undertook the fulfilment of the Perfections were worthy of our most profound adoration and endless admiration should be recognized.

The series of these numerous existences in which our Bodhisatta had fulfilled the Perfections terminated with that of Prince Vessantara. Bodhisatta Sumedha first and foremost fulfilled Dāna Pāramī by giving away all his possessions while as a layman and before his renunciation; similarly when he had become an ascetic and received the prophecy that predicted his Buddhahood, he contemplated the factors leading to Buddhahood and found out that Dāna Pāramī is the first of them and resolved to act accordingly; all this points to the fact that it was Dāna Pāramī with which the Bodhisattas commenced their fulfilment of the Perfections and it [ 305 ] was the same Pāramī with which they ended their fulfilment as in the existence of Prince Vessantara.

Dāna Pāramī results in bhavasampatti, "attainment of higher life" and bhogasampatti, "wealth", (which follow one like a shadow, which cannot be prevented from doing so until one realizes Nibbāna). It is essential for all who go from one birth to another in samsara; (as has been said in the section on Dāna Pāramī in the Anudipani) since the Bodhisattas are leaders of those beings in samsara they specially fulfilled this Pāramī in their final existence as that of Prince Vessantara; after so doing in their final existence, they withdraw from their task of Pāramī-fulfilment; since their fulfilment is complete, they move on to Tusita from their last existences like that of Vessantara as though they were to wait for their ripe time for attainment of Buddhahood.

The eight differences (vematta).

Though these eight differences (vematta) are given at the end of Gotama Buddhavaṃsa in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary, here in this work they are given at the end of the Chronicle of the twenty-four Buddhas lest they should be too far apart from the series of their chronicles beginning with that of Buddha Dīpankara.

Vematta is a Pāḷi word coming from vimatta, (vi meaning varied' and matta 'length' or 'size'.) The Buddhas, namely Dīpankara etc., possessed the same and equal attributes but they were different from one another in eight particulars.

These eight are:

1. ayu vematta (difference in age),
2. pamāna vematta (difference in height),
3. kula vermatta (difference in clan),
4. padhāna vematta (difference in duration of dukkaracariyā
5. rasmi vematta (difference in bodily rays),
6. yāna vematta (difference in vehicles used in renunciation)
7. bodhi vematta (difference in Bodhi Tree), and
8. pallaṅka vematta (difference in pallaṅka).

[ 306 ] 1. Ayu vematta.

Āyu vematta is the difference in life-span of Buddhas.

Buddhas Koṇḍañña, Anomadassī, Paduma, Padumuttara, Atthadassi, Dhammadassi, Siddhattha and Tissa--all these nine Buddhas appeared when the life-span was a hundred thousand years.

Buddhas Mangala, Sumanā, Sobhita, Nārada, Sumedha, Sujāta, Piyadassi and Phussa--these eight Buddhas appeared when the life-span was ninety thousand years.

Buddhas Revata and Vessabhū--these two Buddhas appeared when the life-span was six thousand years.

Buddha Vipassī appeared when the life-span was eighty thousand, Buddha Sikhī when it was seventy thousand, Buddha Kakusandha when it was forty thousand, Buddha Konāgamana when it was thirty thousand, Buddha Kassapa when it was twenty thousand and our Buddha Gotama when it was a hundred years.

It may be argued that these Buddhas should be of equal life-span as they were great beings who had fulfilled the Perfections to a great degree.

In this connection, an elaborate explanation given in the commentary on the Mahā Padana Sutta of the Sutta Mahā Vagga Aṭṭhakathā should be noted in brief. The span of life of beings in the world depends on the observance of righteousness by the ruler. When he observes righteousness all his people do so; and so do Devas who cause the rain fall and do other helpful things. This leads to regularity in climate and production of nutrious fruits and vegetables, etc., for people, who live long because of good heath. When the ruler does not observe righteousness many of his people do not either; nor do Devas see to causing sufficient rain-fall and other favourable conditions. Consequently fruits and vegetables become deficient in nourishment and the climate becomes irregular. As a result, people are exposed to ill-health and become short-lived.

[ 307 ] In this way, those Buddhas who appeared in a period of long life-span enjoy longevity and those who appeared in a period of short life-span do not.

Though all Buddhas have the power to prolong their lives as a result of their past deeds that have effected their conception, their life-spans are different in length according to the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary which says: "upacita puññasambhārānam dighayukasamvattanika-kammasamupetānam pi buddhānam yuga-vasena

āyuppamānam asamanam ahosi, "though they are endowed with the merits of their past deeds that can bring about longevity as a result of their acquisition of wholesome prerequisites, Buddhas are of unequal length of life in accordance with their ayukappas (lifespans)."

To give a worldly example: if the seed of a teak tree that has the ability to last for a thousand years were sowed in a dry zone where the soil is hard and barren, it cannot live that long; similarly, though the (meritorious) deed of the Bodhisattas in their final existence that has caused their conception and that has the power to prolong their lives, if they attain Buddhahood in the short period of an āyukappa that is like the dry hard barren land, their lives have to be short according to their āyukappas.

Length of āyukappa when a Buddha appears.

Buddhas usually do not appear in a kappa when the life-span of beings is on the increase. Because if a Buddha were to appear in such a kappa and teach the doctrine of impermanence and the like, beings would fall to understand the characteristics of anicca, dukkha and anatta of conditioned things as their lives become longer and longer one kappa after another. For this reason Buddhas do not appear in any of the kappas on the increase but they do so in the decereasing kappas.

Even with regard to the decreasing kappas, Buddhas appear only in the kappas that have the life-span of at most a hundred thousand years. They do not appear the kappas that have the life-span longer than a hundred thousand years because their teaching of the three characteristics of conditioned things would fall on deaf ears. When [ 308 ] the life-span decreases, a hundred years is the minimum of the kappa in which they would appear. When the life-span goes down from a hundred years, Buddhas do not appear in those kappas shorter life-span because even though the characteristics of conditioned things manifest themselves glaringly, as their impurities of greed, hate and delusion grow more at the time, beings are unable to accept, follow and practise (the Dhamma) despite Buddhas' teaching. Hence kappas of less than a hundred years of life-span are devoid of Budhas.

In this way, Buddhas appeared during the kappas ranging from that of the maximum life-span which was a hundred thousand years to that of the minimum life-span which was just a hundred years. Though it is true that they appeared in the decreasing kappas between the two kappas-that of the maximum life-span and that of the minimum-the Buddha appeared only in the kappa in which the life-span agrees with the degree of maturity of the prerequisites for the Perfections while they were Bodhisattas. Those Bodhisattas, whose prerequisites reached the maturity that coincided with the period of a hundred thousand years of life-span appropriate to their Enlightenment, they appeared as Buddha in that kappa of a hundred thousand years of life-span. Those Bodhisattas, whose prerequisites were not mature yet as they are still at the stage of fulfilling the Perfections, could not appear as Buddhas in the kappa of a hundred thousand years of life-span but could appear in the kappas in which they would reach the maturity of their prerequistes, the kappas which might be of ninety-thosand years of life-span, or eighty thousand years, seventy thousand years, sixty thousand years, or so, of life-span.

In this Bhadda-kappa, Buddha Kakusandha appeared in the kappa of forty-thousand years of life-span; (after him passed one antara kappa and) Buddha Konagamana appeared in the kappa of thirty thousand years of life-span; (after him passed one antara kappa and) Buddha Kassapa appeared in the kappa of twenty thousand years of life-span; from this it might be anticipated that our Buddha Gotama should appear in like manner, i.e. in the life-span of a ten thousand years when one antara kappa had elapsed after Buddha Kassapa; but he was unable to appear then because the prerequisites for the Perfections had not reached maturity; nay, he was unable to do so [ 309 ] even in the kappa of five thousand years of life-span, or of a thousand years or of five hundred years. The reason was that his complete fulfilment of the Perfections took place only in his life as Prince Vessantara. (Only in that existence did his Perfections attain the fullest extent.) His life as Prince Vessantara occurred in the kappa of a hundred years of life-span. Since his undertaking of fulfilment of the perfection came to an end (the Perfections were fully accomplished); thus in the kappa of a hundred years Buddha Gotama appeared only in the kappa of the same length of life-span.

(Here the author inserts Sayagyi U Lin's remark on the four yugas in explaining the word yugavasena. We leave it out from our translation at it is not quite applicable here.)

(2) Pamāṇa vematta.

Pamāna vematta is the difference in height of Buddhas.

The height of six Buddhas, namely, Dīpañkara, Revata, Piyadassī, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī and Vipassī is eighty cubits.

The height of four Buddhas, namely, Koṇḍañña, Mangala, Nārada and Sumedha, is eighty-eight cubits.

The height of Buddha Sumanā is ninety cubits.

The height of five Buddhas, namely Sobhita, Anomadassī, Paduma, Padumuttara and Phussa is fifty eight cubits.

The height of Buddha Sujāta is fifty cubits.

The height of three Buddhas, namely, Siddhattha, Tissa and Vessabhū, is sixty cubits.

The height of Buddha Sikhī is seventy cubits.

The heights of Buddhas, namely, Kakusandha, Konāgamana and Kassapa are forty cubits, thirty cubits and twenty cubits respectively.

[ 310 ] Buddha Gotama's height is sixteen or eighteen cubits. (These two different versions will be explained in Gotama Buddhavaṃsa.)

It should be noted that the differences in height of the Buddhas are caused mainly by climate and food. Since the Buddhas belonged to mankind and are thus human Buddhas their life-span is naturally the same as that of the people of their times. The Buddhas who appeared in the period of ninety thousand years of life-span generally lived up to ninety thousand years. Those who appeared in the period of one hundred thousand years of life-span generally lived up to one hundred thousand years. In this way, the length of their lifespan agreed with that of the people.

Their heights, however, cannot be determined by their life-span. Because, though they appeared in the same period of one hundred thousand years of life-span, Buddhas Dīpaṅkara, Atthadassi, and Dhammadassi were only eighty cubits tall while Kondañña was eighty-eight cubits, Buddhas Anomadassi, Paduma and Padumuttara were fifty-eight cubits, Buddhas Siddhattha and Tissa were sixty cubits. This suggests that the heights of the Buddhas had nothing to do with their life-spans. If those of the same periods differed thus in height, there is nothing to speak of those who appeared in different periods.

From the statement made in Nanda Sikkhapada, Ratana Vagga, Pācittiya Pāḷi, Vinaya Pitaka, that the Buddha's younger brother, the Venerable Ānanda, was only four fingers shorter than his elder brother, it may be taken that other people of the time were tall as nearly as the Buddha if not of equal height. It therefore follows that the height of the Buddha was equal to the that of the people who were his contemporaries. This, however, does not mean that the two heights were exactly the same.

That the Buddha's height was equal to his contemporary people's was due to the two factors; climate and food. When unrighteousness of rulers is followed by that of the whole world (with the exception of the Noble Ones) there happened [ 311 ] irregularities of climate and nutriment deficiencies in food; being associated with such climate and food the people's physical qualities generated by climate and food cannot develop as much as they should, on the other hand, those qualities well develop when righteousness prevails.

(3) Kula vematta.

Kula vematta is the difference in clan of Buddhas.

Buddhas Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kassapa were born in Brahmin clans while the remaining twenty-two Buddhas were born in aristocratic clans. When people in the world recognized the supremacy of aristocrats, Buddhas came of aristocratic clans. When they recognized the supremacy of Brahmins, Buddhas belonged to Brahmin clans.

(4) Padhāna vematta.

Padhāna vematta is the difference in duration of dukkaracariya.

Seven Buddhas--Dīpankara, Kondañña, Sumanā, Anomadassi, Sujata, Siddhattha, and Kakusandha--practised dukkaraacariya for ten months.

Four Buddhas--Mangala, Sumedha, Tissa and Sikhī--practised for eight months.

Buddha Revata practised for seven months and Buddha Sobhita, for four months.

Three Buddhas--Paduma, Atthadassī, Vipassī--practised for half a month (fifteen days).

Four Buddhas--Nārada, Padumuttara, Dhammadassī and Kassapa--practised for seven days.

Buddhas Piyadassī, Phussa, Vessabhu and Konāgamana practised for six months.

[ 312 ] Our Buddha Gotama, Lord of the three worlds, endowed with inconceivable attributes, practised dukkaracariya for six years.

As there were reasons for inequality of life-span etc., so was here a reason for the difference in duration of dukkaracariya (espacially in the case of Buddha Gotama.) On investigation it would be found out that it was due to his won deed.

To explain further: In the Pubbakammavilotika Buddhapadana, Avataphala Vagga, Apadana Pāḷi, Vol.1, the Buddha himself says (with regard to his demeritorious deed that resulted in his practice of dukkaracariya: for six long years): "Avacaham jotipalo sugatam kassapam tada" etc., "In the lifetime of Buddha Kassapa, I was Jotipāla, a Brahmin youth; then I foolishly offended him saying, "How can this shaven headed man attain knowledge of Arahantship and Omniscience. Which are indeed very difficult to attain. Because of that verbal misdeed I had to practise dukkaracariya for six long years in my final existence."

In view of the fact that it is directly mentioned in the Text that the Buddha had to spend six years for the practice of dukkaracariya on account of his offence, it is understandable that those Buddhas who had to practise it only for seven days did so in accordance with their sufficiently great acts of merit.

Therefore it should be stated that the difference in duration of practice of dukkaracariya was effected by their actions.

Though there were differences in the duration of their ascetic practices (padhāna-viriya) just before their attainment of Buddhahood, once they attained the goal, the degrees of the efforts they put forth (payattaviriya) being one of the six glories of a Buddha, are one and the same.

[ 313 ] (5) Rasmi vematta.

Rasmi vematta is the difference in bodily rays. Buddha Mangala's rays spread and existed in the ten-thousand worldsystem; Buddha Padumuttara's rays did so up to twelve yojanās; Buddha Vipassī's rays up to seven yojanās; Buddha Sikhi's up to three yojanās; Buddha Kakusandha's up to ten yojanās; Buddha Gotama's up to four cubits which form a fathom; the rays of the rest of the Buddhas were not constant; they shone forth as far as the Buddhas wanted them to do so.

Tatra rasmi vemattam ajjhasayappatibaddham. Yo yattakam icchati tassa tattaka sarirappabha pharati. Mangalassa pana 'niccam pi dasa sahassilokadhatum pharatu'ti ajjhasayo ahosi. (Sutta Mahavagga Commentary, Chatthasangayana edition, p.18.)"Of the vemattas, rasmi vematta is related a Buddha's own wish expressed at the time of fulfilling of the Perfections. At the time of fulfilling the Perfections if a Buddha wishes that his physical rays should spread to a certain extent, to that extent his rays spread. Mangala Buddha's wish, however, was: "Let my rays spread throughout the ten-thousand world-system." (This is the meaning of the Commentarial text.) In its Tika, ajjhāsaya is explained to be the prayer that was said while the Bodhisatta concerned was fulfilling on the Perfections.

When one looks for the cause of the difference between physical rays of the Buddhas, one may say that it is the Perfections which they had fulfilled. That it should be so is explained by the Commentators in the story of Mangala Buddha whose rays spread all over the ten-thousand world-system;

In his final existence (that was like the existence of Bodhisatta Gotama as Prince Vessantara) while fulfilling the Perfections, Bodhisatta Mangala was once living with his family on a hill that resembled Vankapabbata, an ogre, Kharadathika, in the guise of a Brahmin, asked the Bodhisatta to give him his children as alms. Thinking, "With pleasure, I shall give them away," he actually did so.

[ 314 ] Leaning against the wooden railing at the end of the walk, the ogre devoured in the Bodhisatta's presence his son and daughter as though he was chewing a bundle of lotus stalks. When the Bodhisatta looked at the ogre he saw the red blood flowing like flames of fire from the ogre's mouth which was open at that moment. But he did not experience even the slightest displeasure. "I have performed well the act of giving". So thinking he was in deed glad to have done so. "As a result of this meritorious act, may my physical rays likewise spring from my body in future," prayed the Bodhisatta. Because of this prayer when he became a Buddha, his natural physical rays reached every nook and corner in the ten-thousand world-system.

From this explanation it should be understood that the difference in rays depended on whether the Buddhas had prayed or not in the past. When one speaks of the difference of physical rays, one generally means their natural rays. If created by means of their power in accordance with their wishes, any-Buddha could make his rays go as far as he desired. In the matter of power, there was no difference at all; one can never say, "This Buddha was of lesser power" or "That Buddha was of greater power."

Three kinds of physical rays.

(1) Byamappabhā rays: This kind of rays constantly sprang from the natural body of the Buddha; having a fathom in length the rays surrounding his body were so dense and massive that they could not be distinguished from the Buddha's body. When one looks at the light of an electric bulb from a distance of the length of a bamboo, one would think that the glow of light is a ball of fire. A close and careful look will reveal, however, the dazzling filament of the original bulb. In the same way, the Buddha's body was accompanied by the encircling rays, each beam measuring a fathom. Those rays are called byāmappabhā. They were thick and massive.
(2) Asitiniccalobhāsa rays; This kind of rays was the continuation of the byamappabhā kind and spread to the distance of eighty cubits.
[ 315 ] (3) Disapharana rays: This kind of rays spread to numberless world-systems because his blood, etc., became clearer when a Buddha contemplated the Doctrine of Patthana or when he displayed the Twin Miracle, or on other occasions.

Two kinds of rays.

The special quality of the Buddha's complexion visible to humans, Devas and Brahmas is called ray in this connection. According to Abhidhammā, byāmappabhā rays and asitiniccalobhāisa rays are to be called the rays born of one's deeds of merit, kammaja (or the rays born of temperature supported by one's deeds, utuja-kammapaccaya), because these two kinds have the past action as their cause. Disāpharaṇa rays should be called the rays born of one's mind (cittaja) (or the rays born of temperature and supported by one's mind, cittapaccaya-utuja) because it has the clarity of the mind as its cause. Thus their classification should be known.

(6) Yāna vematta.

Yāna vematta is the difference in vehicles used by Bodhisattas in renunciation.

Buddhas Dīpaṅkara, Sumanā, Sumedha, Phussa, Sikhī and Konagamana renounced the world riding elephants.

Buddhas Kondanna, Revata, Paduma, Piyadassī, Vipassī and Kakusandha renounced the world riding chariots drawn by thoroughbreds.

Buddhas Maṅgala, Sujata, Atthadassi, Tissa and Gotama renounced the world riding horses.

Buddhas Anomadassi, Siddhattha and Vessabhu renounced the world riding golden palanquins.

Buddha Nārada renounced the world going on foot.

[ 316 ] Buddhas Sobhita, Padumuttara, Dhammadassī and Kassapa renounced the world in (flying) palaces.

Thus the difference in vehicles used by Bodhisattas in renunciation is called Yāna vematta.

(7) Bodhi vematta.

Bodhi vematta is the difference in Mahā Bodhi Trees under which Bodhisattas attained Buddhahood.

Buddha Dīpaṅkara's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a nigrodha.

Buddha Koṇḍñña's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a salakalyanī.

The attainments of Buddhahood by Buddhas Mangala, Sumanā, Revata and Sobhita took place under a naga (iron-wood) Tree.

Buddha Anomadassi's attainment of Buddhahood took place under an ajjuna tree.

The attainments of Buddhahood by Buddhas Paduma and Narada took place under a Mahāsona tree.

Buddha Padumuttara's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a salala tree.

Buddha Sumedha's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a Mahanīpa tree.

Buddha Sujāta's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a mahavelu plant.

Buddha Piyadassī's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a kakudha tree.

Buddha Atthadassī's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a campaka tree.

[ 317 ] Buddha Dhammadassi's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a bimbijala tree.

Buddha Siddhattha's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a kanikara tree.

Buddha Tissa's attainment of Buddhahood took place under an asana tree.

Buddha Phussa's attainment of Buddhahood took place under an amalaka tree.

Buddha Vipassī's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a patali tree.

Buddha Sikhi's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a pundarika tree.

Buddha Vessabhu's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a Mahasala tree.

Buddha Kakusandha's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a sirisa tree.

Buddha Konagamana's attainment of Buddhahood took place under an udumbara tree.

Buddha Kassapa's attainment of Buddhahood took place under a nigrodha tree.

Buddha Gotama's attainment of Buddhahood took place under an assattha tree.

(The fourfold Path is called Bodhi because it leads to the knowledge of the four Truths. Omniscience is called Bodhi because it leads to the knowledge of what should be known. Its definition should be: bujjhatī'ti bodhi, "That which knows the four Truths and that which knows what is to be known is [ 318 ] Bodhi." The tree under which the Bodhisatta knows the four Truths and others to be known thoroughly is also called Bodhi. The definition here is: bujjhati etthā'ti bodhi, "The tree under which the Bodhisatta knows the four Truths and all that is to be known is Bodhi.)"

Thus the difference in Bodhi Trees under which Bodhisattas attained Buddhahood is termed Bodhi vematta.

(8) Pallaṅka vematta.

Pallaṅka vematta is the diference in the size of seat of Buddhas.

The seat on which Buddhas Dīpankara, Revata, Piyadassī, Atthadassi, Dhammadassī and Vipassī attained Buddhahood measured fifty-three cubits each.

That on which Buddhas Kondañña, Maṅgala, Nārada and Sumedha attained Buddhahood measured fifty-seven cubits each.

That on which Sumanā Buddha attained Buddhahood measured sixty cubits.

That on which Buddhas Sobhita, Anomadassi, Paduma, Padumuttara and Phussa measured thirty-eight cubits.

That on which Buddha Sujāta attained Buddhahood measured thirty-two cubits.

That on which Buddhas Siddhattha, Tissa and Vessabhu, attained Buddhahood measured forty cubits.

That on which Buddha Sikhī attained Buddhahood measured thirty-two cubits.

That on which Buddha Kakusandha attained Buddhahood measured twenty-six cubits.

That on which Buddha Konagamana attained Buddhahood measured twenty cubits.

[ 319 ] That on which Buddha Kassapa attained Buddhahood measured fifteen cubits.

That on which Buddha Gotama attained Buddhahood measured fourteen cubits.

Two kinds of pallaṅka.

In this connection it may be noted that there are two kinds of pallaṅka: ābhujana pallaṅka and āsana pallaṅka. Of these two, by ābhujana pallaṅka is meant sitting crosslegged as in "nisīdati pallaṅkam ābhujitvā" of the Mahā Satipatthāna Sutta etc.

By āsana pallaṅka is meant a kind of seat. Āsanapallaṅka is of different sub-divisions such as setthi pallaṅka, rāja pallaṅka, nāga pallanka, deva pallanka, dhamma pallaṅka, bodhi pallaṅka etc.

In the commentary on the Mayhaka Jātaka, Suci Vagga of the Chakka Nipāta, it is said; "Gaccha imaṃ amhakam gharam ānetvā mama pallanke nisīdāpetvā amhākam patiyattabhattassa pattam pūretvā dāpehi", "Go you, take this Pacceka Buddha to my house; let him sit down on my seat and fill his bowl with the food prepared for me. "Such a seat of the wealthy man of Bārāṇasī represents setthi pallaṅka, a seat used by well-to-do persons.

Such royal thrones as.

(1) Sihāsana pallaṅka, the throne made of yamane wood with lion figures at the base and placed at the main hall of the palace where the king grants an audience;
(2) Hamsāsana Pallaṅka, the throne made of thingan wood with hamsa figures at the base and placed at the Jetavana Hall where the king pays homage to the Triple Gem;
[ 320 ] (3) Sankhāsana Pallaṅka, the throne made of mango wood with conchshell figures at the base and placed at the chamber where the king puts on his headdress;
(4) Bhamarāsana Pallanka, the throne made of karaway wood with bee figures at the base and placed at the glass chamber where the king retires;
(5) Gajāsana Pallaṅka the throne made of saga wood with elephant figures at the base and placed at Byai Taik where the king gives rewards and punishments;
(6) Mayurāsana Pallaṅka, the throne made of pauk wood with peacock figures at the base and placed at the northern chamber where the king accepts elephants and horses (as tributes);
(7) Migāsana Pallaṅka, the throne made of fig wood with figures of wild beasts at the base and placed at the southern chamber where the king holds meetings; and
(8) Padumāsana Pallaṅka, the throne made of jack-fruit wood with lotus figures at the base and placed at the western theatrical chamber where the king is honoured;

These eight thrones used by a monarch as well as eightyfour thousand thrones used by Universal Monarch, Mahā Sudassana, represent Raja Pallaṅka.

The throne used by such Naga Kings as Dhatarattha etc., is Nāga Pallanka.

The kind of throne mentioned in the Janavasabha Sutta, the Mahā Govinda Sutta, etc., of the Sutta Mahā Vagga; "Brahma Sanankumara may take his seat on a Deva's throne which he likes" and also the kind of ruby throne measuring a yojana prepared for the Venerabe Mahā Moggalana as mentioned in the Cula Tanhasankhaya Sutta represent a Deva Pallanka.

[ 321 ] The kind of throne on which the Respondants, the Venerables Upāli and Ananda, sat when the First Council was held as mentioned in the introduction to the Sutta Silakkhandha Commentary, etc., and the throne on which noble Dhamma-preachers such as Buddhas etc., are seated represent Dhamma Pallanka.

The kind of seat where all Bodhisattas sat crosslegged with a firm determination resolving, "Never shall I get up from this place until I achieve the knowledge of the Path towards Arahantship and Omniscience," is Bodhi Pallaṅka. Since it was on this seat that they overcame the five Evils the throne is also called Aparājita Pallaṅka.

That Bodhi Pallaṅka was the throne lying four cubits east of the Bodhi Tree which stands on the sacred site Of Bodhi Mandala, a hundred cubits high and very beautiful. The throne arose instantly from the surface of the earth when the Bodhisatta spread the eight handfuls of grass at the very place. It was a result of his accumulated merits of deeds in fulfilling the Perfections. The Throne being ornamented with various jewels was full of splendour. Since it was the place on which the Bodhisatta arrived at the Knowledge of the Path to Arahantship and Omniscience (or where he attained Buddhahood), it is called Bodhi Pallaṅka (in Pāḷi).

(The remaining pages of this volume contain the author's note on controversy over the height of Buddha Gotama's Bodhi Pallaṅka and other matters related to it quoting some extracts from such works as the Manidipa Tikā, Paritta Tikā, Samanta Cakkhu Dipani and the decision given by the Taung Gwin Thathanābaing Sayadaw. As the author's note is mainly meant for the edification of Myanmar we have left it out from our translation.)

End of the First Volume of The Great Chronicle of Buddhas.

1. Bhadda kappa: for kappa in general, see Vol 1, Part 1, Anudīpanī Chapter I, II ,III.

3. Gotrabhū Ñāna: the wisdom that helps one cut off the heritages of kāmaconsciousness and evolve the lineage of the Rūpa-class of exalted consciousness.

4. Eight attainments: eight samapatti-attainments of four Rūpa Jhānas and Arūpa Jhānas.

5. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which each bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

6. This statement-made by the another is repeated after the declaration of prophecy made by each Buddha. We will leave out similar statements from the accounts of later Buddhas.

7. There are three regions associated with the Buddha, namely, (I) Jāti-khetta, the ten-thousand world-system that quaked at the time of his conception, birth, Enlightenment, giving up of the life-sustaining mental process and attaining Nibbāna; (2) āṇā-khetta, the hundred-thousand world-system throughout which his Teaching spread; and (3) Visaya-khetta, the infinite world systems which form the field of investigation of his Omniscience.

8. Nine constituents of Buddha's dispensation, Navaṅga Satthu Sāsana: (1) Sutta-Discourses such as Maṅgala Sutta, Ratana Sutta etc., in plain prose. (2) Geyya--Discourses interspersed with many verses such as these in Saḷāyatana Samyutta. (3) Veyyākarana-Teaching without any verses such as Abhidhammā Piṭaka. (4) Gāthā-Teaching with verses only such as Dhammapada, Thera-gāthā, Therī-gāthā. (5) Udāna-Joyful utterance in 28 discourses such as Anekajāti samsāram. (6) Itivuttaka-18 discourses beginning with the expression "Thus said the Bhagavā". (7) Jātaka- 550 birth stories. (8) Abbhūta Dhamma-Discourses describing the marvellous attributes of such persons as Ānanda etc., (9) Vedalla-Discourses with questions and answers such as Cūla Vedalla Sutta, MahāVedalla Sutta, Sammāditthi Sutta.

9. Four features, see p.

10. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which a bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

11. Ten modes for each of the five khandhas make 50 altogether. The ten modes are enumerated in the Patisambhida Magga Commentary as follows: Impermanent (anicca), crumbling (paloka), unstable (cala), disintegrating (pabhangu), uncertain (addhuva), mutable (viparinama dhamma), essence-less (asara), unprosperous (vibhava) and liable to death (marana dhamma).

12. Yakkha Alavaka: The best known yakkha of Buddha Gotama's lifetime. He was king of Ālavi. Once while he was away, the Buddha came to his palace and preached his women-folk. Hearing of the Buddha's intrusion, the furious Aḷavaka hurried home and tried to drive the Buddha out of his residence, but in vain, on the contarary, it was the Buddha who succeeded in softening the yakkha's anger. Yet the yakkha asked some questions just to fatigue the Buddha, who answered them all to Ālavaka's satisfaction, making him a sotāpanna.

13. With the snapping of the fingers: equivalent to expression of praise or approval with clapping of the hands.

14. "Elephant of a Buddha": Noble Ones such as Buddhas and Arahants are sometimes figuratively likened to such noble animals as elephants, lions, bulls, etc., in Buddhist literature. For instance in the Dhammapada, there is a chapter named Nāga Vagga, the verses of which described the qualities of a nāga "elephant", that may be compared to those of a sage in the Milindapañhā, the epithet Buddha-naga is conspiquously mentioned.

15. See Vol. I, Part II, Chapter VII, a voice of eight qualities.

16. Buddhuppada navama, see Chapter VI, REFLECTIONS ON PERFECTIONS, Vol 1, Part 1.

VOLUME_1 A
Preface

This book forms the later portion of Volume one, Part one, of the Great Chronicle of Buddhas, the state Buddha Sasana Council's version, by the most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw Bhaddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa, Tipiṭakadhara, Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika, Agga Mahāpaṇḍita, Adhidhaja Māhāratthaguru.

Volume One, Part One of the treatise was brought out on the Full-moon day of Tazaungmon, 1352 " M. E (1st November 1990) in time for the 79th birthday Veneration Ceremony of the Venerable Sayadaw. We have successfully endeavoured to bring out this book in commemoration of the Venerable Sayadaw's 80th birthday Jubilee which is being celebrated by members of the Sangha and the laity alike in various centres all over Myanmar.

This book deals with elaborate explanations of various doctrinal points which arise in the earlier portion of Volume One, Part One which ends with the story of the Hermit Sumedha, his reflections on Perfections, and his entering a great forest in the Himalayas with a strong determination to practise and fulfiil the Ten Perfections.

In particular it gives an elaborate expositions on the Ten Perfections treating each of them with meticulous thoroughness quating the whole range of autorities in the Tipiṭaka. The Ten Perfections are to be fulfilled by all those who work for spiritual upliftment to aII lavels of attainments - Buddhahood, Pacceka Buddhahood or Arahatship. We hope this book will be found particulary useful to those who are walking the Eightfold Noble Path but who have not had a Buddhist background.

On this auspicious day of the 80th birthday of the Venerable Sayadaw, we are most rejoiced to be able to honour him with the English rendering of the first volume of his work on the Great Chronicle of Buddhas.

We would like to repeat here our wishes that have been expressed in our Foreword to the previous part of this volume:

"May the Venerable Sayadaw be blessed with long life and good health so that he may continue on rendering invaluable services for the welfare and happiness of all mankind.

U Ko Lay, U Tin Lwin
Dated, Yangen
The 4th Waring of Tazaungmon, 1353 m.e.,
The 10th November 1991.

The Anudīpanī
On the Great Chronicle of Buddhas
Foreword

The word anudipani is purely Pali, anu meaning 'further' and ,dīpanī ' explanation' ; hence 'further explanation' of what is not explicit in the original writing is called anudīpanī. After the Vener'able Ledi Sayadaw had written an exegetical work Paramatthadīpanī on the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, he composed another work, entitled Anudīpanī, to explain again what is vague in the Paramatthadīpanī.

Similarly, an expository work under the title of Anudīpanī on some words and passages of the Great Chronicle which deserve elaboration or explication is written here separately as a supplement. Had the expositions been included in the original work, readers would find the textual expressions and their meanings all in confusion. That would be a distraction for readers. Therefore it is deemed necessary to compile comprehensive notes on important points and topics in the Text as a supplement, Anudīpanī, for the benefit of serious students of the Great Chronicle.

It is hoped that, by going through the Anudīpanī, difficult subjects in the Chronicle would become more easily understandable and profound meanings of some usages would become clearer. Therefore it is suggested that after reading the Cronicle, readers study the Anudīpanī with great care. May they understand easily the deep and important meanings that might otherwise remain unrevealed or overlooked.

VOLUME_1 A
PART_1
CHAPTER_1, 2, 3

spage-1 spage-13

THE ANUDĪPANĪ-FUTHER EXPLANATIONS.

Definition of Pāramī. (p. 17)

[ 2 ] The set of ten virtues including Dāna (Alms-giving), Sīla (Morality), etc... is called Pāramī, Perfections.

A Bodhisatta (Future Buddha), being endowed with these ten virtues such as Dāna, Sīla. etc., is known as a Parama or Extraordinary Personality. On this basis, therefore. the etymology of Pāramī is: Paramānaṃ bhāvo (state of Extraordinary Personalities), which is derived from two things: the knowledge of those who see and know them as such and the saying of those who see and know them that they really are. An alternative etymology is Paramānaṃ kammaṃ (work of Extraordinary Personalities); hence their course of conduct, consisting of Dāna, Sīla, etc.. is called Pāramī.

The order of the ten Perfections should be known by the following verse:

Dānaṃ sīlañ ca nekkhammaṃ
paññā vīriyena pañcamaṃ.
khantī saccaṃ adhiṭṭhānaṃ
mettupekkhā ti te dasa.
Alms-giving, Morality, Renunciation,
Wisdom, Energy as the fifth,
Forbearance, Truthfulness, Resolution,
Loving-kindness and Equanimity;
all these make ten (Perfections).

[Each perfection is of three categories, namely, Pāramī (Ordinary Perfection), Upa-Pāramī (Higher Perfection) and Paramattha-Pāramī (Highest Perfection), (For instance, Dāna is of three categories: (I) Dāna-Pāramī (Ordinary Perfection of Alms-giving), (2) Dāna Upa- pāramī (Higher Perfection of Alms-giving) and Dāna Paramattha Pāramī (Highest Perfection of Alms-giving). So are Sīla and each of the remaining virtues.] Thus there are thirty kinds of Perfection in its detailed enumeration.

[ 3 ] Difference between Pāramī, Upapāramī and Paramattha-Pāramī.

With regard to these three categories, (1) properties such as one's own gold, silver, etc., and family members such as one's own children and wife, (2) limbs big and small such as one's own hands, legs, etc., and (3) one's own life should be noted first. Then referring to Dāna, (1) Gift of properties is Dāna-pāramī (2) Gift of limbs big and small is Dāna-upapāramī and (3) Gift of life is Dāna-paramatthapāramī.

Similarly (1) observance of morality at the sacrifice of properties (2) observance of morality at the sacrifice of limbs big and small and (3) observance of morality at the sacrifice of life are to be understood as Sīla-pāramī Sīla-Upapārami and Sīla-paramatthapāramī respectively. In the case of the remaining eight perfections, too, the same way of classification should be applied.

Different views held by different commentators may be looked up in the exposition of the word ko vibhago' in the Pakiṇṇaka Kathā of the Cariyā Piṭaka Commentary.

Adhimuttimaraṇa.(p.18)

Voluntary passing away by self-determination is called Adhimuttimaraṇa. It is the kind of death that takes place as soon as one resolves "May death come unto me.'' Such a death could happen only to Future Buddhas, not to others.

When a future Buddha is reborn, sometime in a Deva or a Brahma world where the span of life is extremety long, he is aware of the fact that, living in a celestial world, he has no chance whatever to fulfil and cultivate Perfectons, Sacrifices and Practices, and feels such a lengthy life in that celestial abode is boredom. Then after entering his mansion, he shuts his eyes and no sooner has he resolved, "May my life-faculty cease to be", than he experiences the impact of death and passes [ 4 ] away from that divine realm. Indeed his resolution materialises partly because he has little attachment to his body as he has particularly conditioned the continuity of his body by attaining higher knowledge and partly because his resolution based on overwhelming compassion for beings is intense and pure.

As he has control of mind, so has he control of deed: accordingly, when he dies such a voluntary death, he is reborn in the human world as a prince, a brahmin, etc., so that he can fulfil any Perfections he wishes to. That is why, though our Future Buddha Gotama had lived in many an existence in the Brahma abode without losing his attainment of jhāna, he existed only for a short time in that Brahma world and died voluntarily and passed from the Brahma existence into the human existence and built up elements of Perfections.

Kappa or Aeon. (p.34)

What is called () (kambhā) in Myanmar is kappa in Paḷi. Therefore it is said in the text of the Buddhavaṃsa: "kappeca satasahasse, caturo ca asaṅkhiye" etc.

The duration of a kappa cannot be calculated by the number of years. It is known only by inference. Suppose there is a big granary which is one yojana each in length, breadth and height and which is full of tiny mustard seeds. You throw out just one seed each century; then all the mustard seeds may have been thrown out, but the period called kappa may not have come yet to an end. (From this, it is to be inferred that the word kappa in Paḷi or the word kambhā in Myanmar is an extremely long portion of time. But nowadays that the word kāmbhā exactly means such a period is forgotten, and the word is used in the sense of the mass of the earth as in the expressions () (earth surface), () (the globe), etc.

[ 5 ] Divisions Of kappa.

It should therefore be noted that kambhā and kappa are the same. The kappa is of six divisions: (l) Mahā-kappa, (2) Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, (3) Antara-kappa, (4) Āyu-kappa, (5) Hāyana-kappa and (6) Vaddhana-kappa.

One Mahā-kappa is made up of four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas, namely, (a) the kappa in the process of dissolution (Saṃvaṭṭa-kappa), (b) the kappa in the state of dissolution (Saṃvaṭṭaṭṭhāyī-kappa), (c) the kappa in the process of evolution (Vivaṭṭa-kappa) and (d) the kappa in the state of evolution (Vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyī-kappa). (That is to say, these four Asaṅkhyeyya kappas called Saṃvuṭṭa Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, Samvaṭṭaṭṭhāyī Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, Vivaṭṭa Asaṅkhyeyya kappa and Vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyī Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa make one Mahā-kappa).

Of these four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas, the Saṃvaṭṭa-kappa is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain, that heralds the dissolution of kappa till the extinction of flames if the kappa is to be dissolved by fire; or till the receding of floods if the kappa is to be dissolved by water; or till the cessation of storms if the kappa is to be dissolved by the air element.

The Saṃvaṭṭaṭṭhāyī-kappa is the period beginning from the moment of dissolution of the world by fire, water or the air element till the falling of the great rain that heralds the evolution of a new world.

The Vivaṭṭa-kappa is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain that heralds the evolution of a new world till the appearance of the sun, the moon, and the stars and planets.

The Vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyī-kappa is the period beginning from the appearance of the sun, the moon and the stars and planets to the falling of the great rain that heralds the dissolution of the world.

Thus there are two kinds of kappa-dissolving rain: one is the great rain which falls in any kappa when it is nearing its dissolution either by fire, or by water or by the air element. First, there is a great downpour of rain [ 6 ] all over the universe that is to be dissolved. Then taking advantage of the falling of the rain, people start cultivation. When there come up plants big enough for cattle to feed on, the rain completely ceases to fall. It is the rain that heralds the dissolution of a kappa.

The other kind is also a great downpour but it falls when a kappa is to be dissolved by water. It is not an ordinary rain fall, but a very unusual one, for it has the power to smash even a rocky mountain into smithereens.

(An elaborate description of the dissolution of a kappa by fire, water or the air element is given in the chapter on the Pubbenivāsānussati Abhiññā of the Visuddhimagga translation.) The above-mentioned four Asaṅkhyeyya- kappas are of the same duration, which cannot be reckoned in terms of years. That is why they are known as Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas (Aeons of Incalculable Length).

These four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas constitute one Mahākappa (Great Aeon). The Myanmar word kambhā is (sometimes) used in the sense of the Pāḷi Mahā-kappa: the Myanmar language has no separate word for Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, but it adopts () (Asaṅkyeyya-kap) as a derivative from Pāḷi.

Antara-kappa, etc.

At the beginning of the Vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyī Asaṅkheyya kappa (i.e. at the beginning of the world) people live for incalculable (asaṅkheyya) years. As time goes on, they are overcome by such mental defilements as lobha (greed), dosa, (anger), etc., and consequently their life-span gradually decreases until it becomes only ten years. Such a period of decrease is called Hāyana-kappa in Pāḷi or () (aeon of decrease) in Myanmar.

On the contrary, owing to the occurrence and uplift of such wholesome principles as sublime states of mind, namely, metta (loving-kindness), etc., the life-span of generations of their descendents doubles up step by step until it becomes incalculable years. Such a period of increase in life-span from ten years to incalculable years [ 7 ] is called Vaddhana-kappa in Pāḷi or () (aeon of increase) in Myanmar. (For further details of these two periods of increase and decrease in the human life-span, see the Cakkavatti - Sutta of the Pāthika Vagga in the Dīgha Nikāya.)

Thus the life-span of human beings goes up and down between ten years and incalculable years as they develop meritoriousness or are overcome by their demeritoriousness. A pair of life-span, an increasing one and a decreasing one, is called an Antara-kappa.

Three kinds of Antara-kappa.

At the beginning of the world, when people's life-span declines from incalculable years to ten years, a change of kappa takes place. If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of greed, there occurs scarcity of food and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the kappa. Such a round of time is called Dubbhikkhantara-kappa or the aeon of famine.

If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment there occurs an epidemic of diseases and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the kappa. Such a round of time is called Rogantara-kappa or the aeon of diseases.

If the decline of life-span is due to the particularly overpowering state of hatred there occur killings of one another with arms and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the kappa. Such a round of time is called Satthantara-kappa or the aeon of weapons.

(According to the Visuddhimagga-Mahaṭikā, however, the Rogantara-kappa is brought about by the particularly overpowering state of greed, the Satthantara-kappa by the particularly overpowering state of hatred and the Dubbhik- khantara-kappa by the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment; then perish evil persons.)

The naming of each pair of life-spans- one increasing and the other decreasing as Antara-kappa may be explained thus: before all is dissolved either by fire, water or the air element at the end of Vivattatthāyī-Asaṅkkhyeyya-kappa and whenever the life-span becomes ten years, all evil persons are perished with [ 8 ] famine, diseases or weapons. In accordance with this statement, here it refers to the intermediate period of decrease between one period of total destruction and another.

After the calamity that befalls during the final seven days of each Antara-kappa, the name Rogantara-kappa, Satthantara-kappa or Dubbhikkhantara-kappa is given to the period of misfortune that befalls before the ten years life-span (not in the whole world but) in a limited region such as a town or a village; if there appears an epidemic of diseases, we say there is Rogantara-kappa in that region: if there breaks out war, we say there is Satthantara- kappa in that region; if there occurs starvation we say there is Dubbhikkhantara-kappa in that region. Such a saying is just figurative because the regional incident is similar to the cosmic. When in prayers one mentions "three kappas" from which one wishes to be free, one usually refers to these three great disasters.

At the completion of 64 Antara-kappas (each antarakappa consisting of a pair of increasing and decreasing aeons), a Vivattathayi Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa comes to an end. Since there are no living beings (in human and celestial realms) during the Saṃvatta Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, Saṃvaṭṭaṭ ṭhāyī Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa and Vivattatthayi Asaṅkkhyeyya- kappa, these kappas are not reckoned in terms of Antara-kappa consisting of a set of increasing and decreasing aeons. But it should be noted that each of these Asaṅkkhyeyya-kappas, lasting as long as 64 Antara- kappas, are of the same duration as a Vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa.

Āyu kappa.

Āyu-kappa means a period which is reckoned in accordence with the span of life (āyu) of that period. If the life-span is one hundred, a century is an Āyu-kappa; if it is one thousand, a millennium is an Āyu-kappa.

[ 9 ] When the Buddha said, "Ānanda, I have developed the four Iddhipadas (bases of psychic power). If I so desire I can live either a whole kappa or a little more than a kappa," the kappa therein should be taken as an Āyu-kappa, which is the duration of life of people living in that period. It is explained in the Aṭṭhaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Commentary that the Buddha made such a declaration meaning to say that he could live one hundred years on a little more if he so desired.

Mahāsiva Thera, however, says, "the Āyu-kappa here is to be taken as the Mahā-kappa called Bhaddaka." (He says so because he holds that the kamma that causes rebirth in the final existence of a Buddha has the power of prolonging his life-span for incalculable years and because it is mentioned in the Pāḷi Texts that Āyupālaka- phalasamāpatti, the fruition-attainment that conditions and controls the life-sustaining mental process called Āyusaṅkhara, can ward off all its dangers.) But the Thera's view is not accepted by commentators.

The Saṃghabhedakakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Cūḷavagga states; "He who causes a schism of the Saṃgha is reborn in Niraya, realms of continuous suffering, and suffers there for a whole kappa." "That kappa is the life-span of Avīci, the lowest realm of continuous suffering", explains the Commentary. The life-span of Avīci inmates is equal to one eightieth of a Mahakappa according to the Terasakaṇḍa-Tika, a voluminous Sub- Commentary on the Vinaya. In the same work it is particularly mentioned that one eightieth of that duration should be reckoned as an Antara-kappa (of Avīci inmates). It therefore follows that one Mahakappa is made up of 80 Antara-kappas according to the reckoning of Avīci inmates.

It may be clarified that as mentioned above one Mahākappa has four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas, and one Asaṅkheyya-kappa has 84 Antara-kappas. Therefore one Mahākappa is equivalent to 256 Antara-kappas by human calculations.

[ 10 ] If 256 is divided by 80, the remainder is 3 1/5 Therefore 3 1/5 Antara-kappas of human beings make one Antara-kappa of Avici inmates. (In Avici there is no evolving and dissolving kappas as in the human world. Since it is the place that knows suffering at all times, the end of each dissolving kappa is not marked with the three periods of misfortune. One eightieth of a Mahakappa which is the life-span of Avici inmates is their Antara-kappa. Therefore by one Antara-kappa of Avici is meant 3 l/5 Antara-kappas of human beings.)

In this way, it may be assumed that one Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa is equal to 64 Antara-kappas of human beings and 20 Antara-kappas of Avīci inmates. Therefore when some Pāḷi texts (such as the Visuddhi-magga Mahā-Ṭīkā, the Abhidhammattha - vibhāvanī Ṭīkā, etc.) say that one Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa contains either 64 or 20 Antara-kappas, the figures do not contradict each other. The difference between the numbers (64 and 20) lies only in the manner of calculation. It should be noted that the two are of the same length of time.

A particularly noteworthy thing is a statement in the Sammohavinodanī, the Commentary on the Abhidhammā Vibhaṅga. In the exposition of Nāṇa-vibhaṅga, it is said: "Only Saṃghabhedaka-kamma (the act of causing schism in the Saṃgha) results in suffering a whole kappa. Should a man owing to his such act be reborn in Avīci at the beginning or in the middle of the kappa, he would gain release only when the kappa dissolves. If he were reborn in that realm of suffering today and if the kappa dissolves tomorrow, he should then suffer just one day and would be free tomorrow. (But) there is no such possibility."

On account of this statement there are some who opine that "The Saṃghabhedaka-kamma leads to niraya for the whole aeon (in the sense of Mahākappa); he who commits this kamma gains freedom only when the kappa dissolves. As a matter of fact, the expression kappaṭṭhitiyo (lasting for the whole kappa) is explained in the Vibhaṅga- Commentary only in a general manner; it does not [ 11 ] emphatically mention the word Mahā-kappaṭṭhiṭiyo (lasting for the whole Mahakappa). The expression kappaṭṭhiṭiyo is based on a verse in the Vinaya Cūlvagga which reads to the effect that "having destroyed the unity of the Saṃgha, one suffers in niraya for the whole kappa." Therefore the kappa here should be taken only as Āyukappa but not Mahākappa. In the 13th chapter of the Kathāvatthu Commentary, it is said in dealing with kappa that the verse has been composed with reference to Āyukappa (of Avīci inmates) which is only one eightieth of Mahākappa.

Divisions of Mahākappa.

Mahākappa is divided into two classes: (1) Suññakappa or Empty Aeon and (2) Asuñña-kappa or Non-empty Aeon.

Of these two, the aeon in which Buddhas do not appear is Suñña-kappa or Empty Aeon; it means the aeon which is void of a Buddha.

The aeon in which Buddhas appear is Asuñña-kappa or Non-empty aeon; it means the aeon which is not void of a Buddha.

Though Buddhas do not appear in an Empty Aeon, that there can be appearance of Private Buddhas and Universal Monarchs, may be inferred from the Upāli Thera Sutta in the first Vagga of the Apādāna.

In the Upāli Thera Sutta and its Commentary, it is said two aeons prior to this one, Prince Khattiya, son of king Añjasa, on his departure from a park committed an offence against Pacceka Buddha Devīḷa, No text mentions the appearance of a Buddha in that aeon. In the Commentary on the Bhaddaji Thera Sutta of the Apadāna, too, it is stated that the Thera had given alms-food to five hundred Pacceka Buddhas in a Suñña-kappa. It is clear from these texts that Pacceka Buddhas appear in Suññakappa. Again the Kusumāsaniya Thera Sutta of the Apadāna, mentions that "Future Kusumāsaniya was reborn as Universal Monarch Varadassī in the aeon that immediately followed". The Tiṇasanthara Thera Sutta of the same work also says that "Future Tiṇasanthara Thera was reborn as [ 12 ] Universal Monarch Migasammata in the second aeon prior to the present one," suggesting that there is the possibility of the appearance of Universal Monarchs in any empty aeon.

The Non-Empty Aeon in which Buddhas appear is divided into five classes: (a) Sāra-kappa.(b) Maṇḍa-kappa, (c) Vara-kappa, (d) Sāramaṇḍa-kappa. and (e) Bhaddakappa. Of these
(a) the aeon in which a single Buddha appears is known as Sāra-kappa,
(b) the aeon in which two Buddhas appear is known as Maṇḍa-kappa,
(c) the aeon in which three Buddhas appear is known as Vara-kappa,
(d) the aeon in which four Buddhas appear is known as Sāramaṇḍa-kappa, and
(e) the aeon in which five Buddhas appear is known as Bhadda-kappa.

The aeon that witnessed the existence of Sumedha as mentioned in the Chapter on Sumedha the Brahmin is Sāramaṇḍa-kappa because there appeared four Buddhas in that aeon. The city of Amaravatī came into existence after the appearance of the three Buddhas, namely. Taṇhaṅkara, Medhaṅkara, and Saranaṅkara and before the appearance of Dīpaṅkara.

The name Amaravatī. (p.35)

Amara means "God" (immortal being) and vatī means "possession"; hence the great city which gods possess. It is stated in the Bhesajjakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahāvagga and other places that as soon as the Brahmins Sunidha and Vassakāra planned to found the city of [ 13 ] Pāṭaliputta gods came first and distributed among themselves plots of land. Those plots of land occupied by gods of great power became residences of princes, ministers and wealthy persons of high rank; those plots of land occupied by gods of medium power became residences of people of medium rank; and those plots of land occupied by gods of little power became residences of people of low rank.

From this statement it may be supposed that gods came in hosts to take up residences for themselves and occupied them where a great royal city was to be established. Amaravatī was so named to denote the presence of gods who marked out their own locations in the city and protected them for their habitation.

The Pāḷi word vatī signifies possession in abundance. In this world those who have just a little wealth are not called wealthy men but those who possess wealth much more than others are called so. Therefore the name Amaravatī indicates that, as it was a great royal residential city, it was occupied and protected by a large number of highly powerful gods.

Ten sounds. (p.35)

The Buddhavaṃsa enumerates only six sounds, not all ten. The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta of the Mahāvagga of the Dīgha Nikāya and the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary enumerate all ten. (This is followed by a comprehensive and critical survey of the ten sounds, dasasadda which come differently in different texts, namely, the Buddhavaṃsa, the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta of the Digha Nikāya, Buddhavaṃsa Commentary, the Myanmar and Sri Lankan versions of the Jātaka Commentary, and the Mūla-Tīkā, for the benefit of Pāḷi scholars. We have left them out from our translation.)

VOLUME_1 A
PART_1
CHAPTER_4

spage-13 spage-30

THE CHAPTER ON RENUNCIATION OF SUMEDHA.

The five defects of a walkway (p.40) are as follows:-

(1) A walkway that is rough and rugged hurts the feet of one who walks on it; blisters appear. Consequently [ 14 ] meditation cannot be practised with full mental concentration. On the other hand, comfort and ease provided by a soft and even-surfaced walkway is helpful to complete practice of meditation. Roughness and ruggedness therefore is the first defect of a walkway.

(2) If there is a tree inside or in the middle or at the edge of a walkway, one who walks without due care on that walkway can get hurt on the forehead or on the head by hitting himself against the tree. The presence of a tree is therefore the second defect of a walkway.

(3) If a walkway is covered by shrubs and bushes, one who walks on it in the dark can tread on reptiles, etc., and kill them (although unintentionally). The presence of shrubs and bushes therefore is the third defect of a walkway.

(4) In making a walkway, it is important that it has three lanes. The middle and main one is straight and of 60 cubits in length and one and a half cubits in breadth. On either side of it are the two smaller lanes, each a cubit wide. Should the middle lane be too narrow, say, only a cubit or half a cubit, there is the possibility of hurting one's legs or hands through an accident. Being too narrow therefore is the fourth defect of a walkway.

(5) Walking on a walkway which is too wide. one may get distracted: one's mind is not composed then. Being too wide therefore is the fifth defect of a walkway.

(Here, follows the explanation of the Pāḷi word 'pañcadosa' as contained in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary. This is left out from our translation.)

The Eight Comforts of a Recluse.

The eight comforts of a recluse (Samaṇasukha), mentioned here are described as the eight blessings of a recluse Samaṇabhadra) in the Soṇaka Jātaka of the Satthi Nipāta. The following is the Jātaka story in brief:

Once upon a time, the Bodhisatta was reborn as Arindama, son of king Magadha of Rājagaha. On the same day was born Soṇaka, son of the king's chief adviser.

[ 15 ] The two boys were brought up together and when they came of age they went to Taxila to study. After finishing their education, they left Taxila together and went on a long tour to acquire a wider and practical knowledge of various arts and crafts and local customs. In due course they arrived at the royal gardens of the king of Bārānasī and entered the city the following day.

On that very day the festival of Veda recitations known as Brāhmaṇavācaka was to be held and milkrice was prepared and seats were arranged for the occasion. On entering the city, Prince Arindama and his friend were invited into a house and given seats. Seeing that the seat for the prince was covered with a white cloth while that for him was covered with a red cloth, Soṇaka knew from that omen that "Today my friend Arindama will become king of Bārāṇasī and I will be appointed general."

After the meal, the two friends went back to the royal gardens. It was the seventh day after the king's demise, and ministers were looking for a person worthy of kingship by sending the state chariot in search of him. The chariot left the city, made its way to the gardens and stopped at the entrance. At that moment Prince Arindama was lying asleep on an auspicious stone couch with his head covered and Soṇaka was sitting near him. As soon as Soṇaka heard the sound of music, he thought to himself, "The state chariot has come for Arindama. Today he will become king and give me the post of his Commander-in-Chief. I do not really want to have such a position. When Arindama leaves the gardens I will renounce the world to become an ascetic," and he went to a corner and hid himself.

The chief adviser and ministers of Bārānasī anointed Prince Arindama king even on the very stone couch and with great ceremonial pomp and grandeur took him into the city. Thus Prince Arindama became king of Bārānasī. Lost in the sudden turn of events and attended upon by a large number of courtiers and retinue he totally forgot his friend Soṇaka.

[ 16 ] When King Arindama had left for the city, Soṇaka came out from his hiding place and sat on the stone couch. At that time he saw a dry leaf of sāla (shorea robusta) falling right in front of him and he contemplated: "Like this sāla leaf my body will certainly decay and oppressed by old age, I will definitely die and fall to the ground." With this religious emotion thus aroused, he at once engaged himself in Vipassanā meditation, and, at the very sitting, there arose in him the enlightenment of a Pacceka Buddha, and he became a Pacceka Buddha himself. His lay appearance vanished, and he assumed a new appearance of an ascetic. Making an utterance of joy, "Now I have no more rebirth !" he went to the cave of Nandamūlaka.

Prince Arindama on the other hand remained intoxicated with kingly pleasures. Only after some forty years, he suddenly remembered his childhood friend. Then he yearned to see him, wondering where he would be staying now. But receiving no news or clues about his friend's whereabouts, he uttered repeatedly the following verse:

Whom shall I give a hundred coins for hearing and bringing me good news about Soṇaka? Whom shall I give a thousand coins for seeing Soṇaka in person and telling me how to meet him? Who, whether young or old, would come and inform me of my friend Soṇaka, my playmate with whom I had played in the dust?"

People heard the song and everybody sang the same, believing it to be his favourite.

After 50 years, a number of children had been born to the king, the eldest one being Dīghāvu. At that time Pacceka Buddha Soṇaka thought to himself thus: "King Arindama is wanting to see me. I will go to him and shower upon him the gift of thought-provoking sermons on the disadvantages of sensuality and the advantages of renunciation so that he would incline to lead an ascetic life". Accordingly, he travelled through space to the royal gardens. Having heard a boy singing repeatedly the [ 17 ] aforementioned song of King Arindama while chopping wood, the Pacceka Buddha taught him a verse in response to his.

The boy went to the king and recited the responding song which gave the clue to his friend's whereabouts. Then the king marched in military procession to the gardens and paid respect to the Pacceka Buddha. But being a man of worldly pleasures the king looked down upon him and said: "What a destitute you are, living a wretched lonely life as this." The Pacceka Buddha rejected the king's censure by replying: "Never is he a destitute who enjoys the bliss of the Dhamma in the Noble Path both mentally and physically! Only he who dissociates himself from the Dhamma and practises what is not righteous is a destitute! Besides, he is evil himself and forms a refuge for other evil persons."

Then he informed the Pacceka Buddha that his name was Arindama and that he was known by all as king of Kāsi, and asked if the holy man was living a happy life.

Then the Pacceka Buddha uttered the eight verses in praise of the eight blessings of a recluse (samaṇabhadra):

1. "Great King, a recluse who has gone forth from a househole life to a houseless state and who is free of the worries of wealth feels happy at all places and at all times (not only in your gardens and at this moment). Great King, such a recluse does not have to keep grain in stores or in jars (unlike lay people who do the hoarding and whose greed grows for a long time). A recluse lives on food prepared in donors' homes and obtained by going on almsround; he partakes of such food with due contemplation. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from nonhoarding of wealth and grain).

2. (There are two kinds of blameworthy food (sāvajjapiṇḍa). As mentioned in the Vinaya, the first kind is the food obtained by one of the improper means such as by healing the sick and so on, or by one of the five wrong manners of livelihood. The other blameworthy kind is the food taken without due contemplation although the food may have been properly obtained).

[ 18 ] "Great King, a noble recluse duly contemplates while eating the food that has been obtained blamelessly. He who has thus blamelessly eaten his blameless food is not oppressed by any form of sensuality. Freedom from oppression by sensuality is the second blessing of a recluse who has neither wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from seeking and taking of blameless food.)

3. (The food that has been sought properly and eaten with due contemplation by a worldling may be called "peaceful food" (nibbutapiṇḍa), that is to say, the food that does not incite craving. In reality, however, only an Arahant's food is "peaceful," i.e. it does not incite craving.)

"Great King, a noble recluse takes peaceful food only. He is thus not oppressed by any form of sensuality. Freedom from oppression by sensuality is the third blessing of a recluse who has no wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from taking peacefull food only.)

4. Great King, a noble recluse who goes on alms round in towns and villages without attachment to donors of requisites does not adhere to greed and hatred. (Clinging wrongly to a sense object in the manner of a thorn is called dosasaṅga, faulty adherence.) Freedom from such clinging is the fourth blessing of a recluse who has no wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from non-attachment to male and female donor and from non-association with them.)"

5. "Great King, (a recluse who has extra requisites not used by him entrusts them to a donor for security. Later on when he hears such (and such) a donor's house has been gutted by fire, he is greatly distressed and has no peace of mind. On the other hand, another recluse has only those requisites that are on his body or that he carries along with him just like the wings of a bird that go with it wherever it flies). He suffers no loss when a town or a village is destroyed by fire. Immunity from [ 19 ] loss of requisites through fire is the fifth blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from not being victimized by fire.)

6. "Great King, when a town or a village is plundered by robbers, a recluse, who like me wears or carries along his requisites, loses nothing (while others who have extra requisites suffer loss through plundering by robbers and know no peace of mind). Freedom from the trouble of looking after one's possessions is the sixth blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from feeling secure against robbers.)

7. "Great King, a recluse who has only the eight requisites as his possession moves freely without being stopped, interrogated or arrested on the road where robbers waylay or security officers patrol. This is the seventh blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from harmless travelling on the road where robbers or security men are waiting.)

8. "Great King, a recluse who has only the eight requisites as his possessions can go wherever he likes without taking a longing look back (at his old place). Such possibility of moving is the eighth blessing of a recluse who has no possessions. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from freely going about without yearning for his old place.)

The King Arindama interrupted Pacceka Buddha Soṇaka's sermon on the blessings of a recluse and asked, "Though you are speaking in praise of the blessings of a recluse, I cannot appreciate them as I am always in pursuit of pleasures. Sensual pleasures, both human and divine, I cherish. In what way can I gain human and divine existences?". Pacceka Buddha Soṇaka replied that those who relish sensuality are destined to be reborn in unhappy abodes, and only those who abandon it are not destined to be reborn there. By' way of an illusiration, he told the story of a crow that joyously rode a dead elecphant floating into the ocean and lost its life: Pacceka Buddha then spoke of the blemishes of sensual pleasures and departed, travelling through space.

[ 20 ] Being immensely moved by religious emotion as a result of the Pacceka Buddha's exhortation, King Arindama handed over kingship to his son Dīghāvu and left for the Himalayas. After becoming a recluse, living on fruit and cultivating and developing Jhāna through meditation on the four sublime modes of living (Brahamavihāra-mettā, karuṇā, muditā and upekkhā) he was reborn in the Brahma realm.

The nine disadvantages of a lay-man's dress. (p. 42)

1. Costliness of the garment.
2. Availability only through connection with its maker.
3. Getting soiled easily when used.
4. Getting worn out and tattered easily owing to frequent washing and dyeing.
[ 21 ] 5. Difficulty in seeking a replacement for the old one.
6. Being unsuitable for a recluse.
7. Having to guard against loss through theft.
8. Appearing to be ostentatious when put on.
9. When taken along without being worn it is burdensome and makes one appear to be avaricious.
The twelve advantages of the fibre-robe. (p. 42)

1. Being inexpensive but of fine quality.
2. Possibility of making it by oneself.
3. Not getting easily soiled when used and being easily cleaned.
4. Easily discarded, when worn out without a need for stitching and mending.
[21 ] 5. Having no difficulty in seeking a replacement for the old one.
6. Being suitable for a recluse.
7. Not having to guard against loss through theft.
8. Not appearing to be ostentatious when put on.
9. Not burdensome when taken along or put on.
10. Forming no attachment to the robe as a requisite for the user.
11. Made just by beating the bark of a tree; thus it is righteously and faultlessly gained.
12. Not being worthy of regret over its loss or destruction.

The fibre-robe.

The fibre-robe means the robe made of fibres obtained from a kind of grass and fastened together. (This is described in the Aṭṭhasālinī.)

According to the Hsutaunggan Pyo, fastening the fibres together itself is not the complete making of the garment. It must be beaten so as to make it soft and smooth. That is why it is called "beaten fibre" in Myanmar.

The "fibre-robe" has the name vākacīra, vakkala, and tirīṭaka in Pāḷi.

Vākacira literally means a robe made of grass, and therefore it should actually be translated "grass-robe". But traditional teachers translate the word as "fibre-robe".

The remaining two names, vakkala and tirīṭaka, refer to a robe made of fibres that come from the bark of a tree. Though the word vakka of vakkala means "bark of a tree" it does not denote pure, thick, outer crust of the bark, but the inner layers made up of fibres covering the woodcore. It should be noted that, because such fibres are taken [ 22 ] off, fastened and beaten for softness and smoothness, the robe made thus is called fibre-robe. Though vākacīra has the meaning of "grass-robe", the process of making the robe out of fibres taken off from trees is more common than that of making it out of grass and the name "fibre robe" is better known than "grass-robe". That is why the word "fibre-robe" is adopted in the Hsutaunggan Pyo.

The wooden tripod.

The wooden tripod (Tidaṇḍa or tayosūlī) is a requisite of a hermit. It is a stand with three legs on which is placed a water jug or pot.

The water jug and the yoke.

The water jug (kuṇḍikā) is another requisite of a hermit. Khārikāja meaning a yoke is taken by traditional teachers as a combination of khāri and kāja both meaning the same: a pole which is curved. According to some, Khāri means a hermit's set of requisites consisting of a flint, a needle, a fan etc., Taking these interpretations together, khārikāja may be taken as the pole on which are hung various requisites of a hermit.

The hide of a black antelope (ajinacamma). (p.42)

The hide of a black antelope, complete with hoofs, called ajinacamma is also one of the requisites of a hermit, which may be elaborated somewhat as follows.

The Pāḷi ajinacamma has been unanimously translated "the hide of a black antelope" by ancient scholars. It is generally thought therefore that a beast which is black all over its body is called a "black antelope" ... In the Amarakosa Abhidhāna (section 17, v,47) the word Ajina is explained as "hide" synonymous with camma. This explanation of the Amarakosa is worthy of note.

In the Aṭṭhasālinī and other-commentaries, there is an expression meaning "the hide, complete with hoofs, of a black antelope, which was like a bed of punnāga flowers".

[ 23 ] The phrase "complete with hoofs" (sakhuraṃ) indicates that it is the hide of a hoofed animal. When it is said to be "like a bed of punnaga flowers", we have to decide whether the likeness to a bed of punnāga flowers refers to its colour or to its softness. That the punnāga flowers is not particularly softer than other flowers is known to many: therefore it should be decided that the likeness refers to its colour. This suggests then that the hide could not be that of a black antelope.

Though ajina is translated "black leopard" by scholars of old, that it actually means an animal's coat and is synonymous with camma is evident from such statement as "ajinamhi haññate dīpi,'' ("a leopard is killed for its coat,") in the Janaka and Suvaṇṇasāma Jātakas. The Commentary on the Janaka also explains ajina to be a synonym of camma by saying "ajinamhīti cammatthāya cammakaraṇā" - ("for its coat means for obtaining its hide"). There are only two words, dīpi and saddūla, in Pāḷi meaning a leopard. Ajina is not found in that sense.

The Buddhavaṃsa Text also says, "kese muñcitvā, ham tattha vākacirañ ca cammakaṃ". When Sumedha lay prostrate before Buddha Dipaṅkara, offering himself as a bridge, he loosened his hair-knot and spread his fibre-robe and the animal's hide on the bog. The Pāḷi word used here is cammaka which is the same as ajinacamma discussed above.

All this points to the fact that ajinacamma is not the coat of a beast with claws like a tiger, a leopard or a cat and the adjectival phrase "complete with hoofs" shows that it is the coat of an animal with hoofs like that of cattle and horses. The coat has the colour of a bed of punnāga flowers as mentioned in the Aṭṭhasālinī. It is also very soft to the touch. Such animals like eṇī are found in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas. Because its coat is smooth and very beautiful and not easily available, people treasure it as a symbol of auspiciousness.

When Bodhisatta Siddhattha was born, the Cātumahārājika Devas of the four quarters, received him from the hands of the saintly Brahmas of the Suddhāvāsa abode [ 24 ] with a coat of this particular animal-the coat having a soft fur and commonly regarded to be auspicious. This is mentioned in the Introduction of the Jātaka Commentary and in the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary as well.

(The author then acknowledges that all that has been discussed regarding the translation of ajinacamma as the hide of a black antelope is the view of the great scholar U Lin, the previous compiler of The Great Chronicle of Buddhas.)

Matted hair (jaṭa) and round headdress made of hair (jatāmaṇḍala). (p.42)

The difference between the matted hair and the round headdress made of hair should be understood. The matted hair is something that is a part of the hermit. In order to save the trouble of keeping it well groomed, the hermit knotted his hair firmly and tightly. This is what is meant by "matted hair".

One of the requisites created and left in the hut by Visukamma as mentioned in the Aṭṭhasālinī is the round headdress made of hair called jaṭāmaṇḍala. This is a thing separate from the hermit's person. It is not a part of him. From the sentence "He put the headdress on his topknot and fastened it with an ivory hairpin", it is clear that the headdress is a thing separate from Sumedha's hair-knot. It evolved into a hermit's headdress of later times and protects the hair knot from dust and litter and is called nowadays in Myanmar.

(The author here mentions the opinions of the Monyway Zetawun Sayadaw and Mahāsīlavaṃsa who stated that the "matted hair" and "headdress" are the same thing. But the author concludes his discussion by quoting the Catudhammasāra (Kogan) Pyo, Māgadha Abhidhāna, and certain Jātaka stories which say that they are two different things. By quoting the Catudhammasāra Pyo and the Maghadeva Laṅkā, the author finally says that [ 25 ] just as a snare is used to catch a bird, so also the matted hair in the form of a snare is worn by a hermit to catch the great bird of "the Eightfold Noble Path" as soon as it alights in the forest that is "his mind"

Eight Kinds of Hermits.

(The author first explains the derivation of the Myanmar word (hermit) from Pāḷi and Sanskrit.)

The word "hermit" refers to those who are outside the Buddha's teaching. Nevertheless they should be regarded as holy persons of the time.

The commentary on the Ambattha Sutta of the Sīlakkhandha Vagga enumerates eight kinds of hermits as follows:

1. Saputtabhariya,
2. Uñchācariya,
3. Anaggipakkikā
4. Asāmapāka,
5. Ayamuṭṭhika (Asmamuṭṭhika),
6. Dantavakkalika,
7. Pavattaphalabhojana and
8. Paṇḍupalāsika.

1. A hermit who piles up wealth and lives a householder's life is called Saputtabhariya. (Here the author mentions Keniya of the Buddha's lifetime as an example.)

2. A hermit who does not pile up wealth and who does not live a householder's life, but who collects unhusked grain from lay people at threshing grounds and cooks his own food is called Uñchācariya.

3. A hermit who collects husked grain from lay men in villages and cooks his own food is called Anaggipakkika. He thinks husking grain by pounding is not worthy of one who lives a hermit's life.

[ 26 ] 4. A hermit who enters a village and collects cooked rice is called Asāmapāka. He thinks cooking is not worthy of one who lives a hermit's life.

5. A hermit who takes off the bark of a tree for food by means of a metal or stone implement is called Ayamuṭṭhika (or Asmamuṭṭhika). He thinks to collect food each day is wearisome.

6. A hermit who takes off the bark of a tree with his teeth for food is called Dantavakkalika. He thinks to carry metal or stone implements is wearisome.

7. A hermit who lives on the fruits that fall down by throwing a stone or a stick at them is called Pavattaphalabhojana. He thinks to remove the bark is wearisome.

8. A hermit who lives only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall down naturally from trees is called Paṇḍupalāsika.

The Paṇḍupalāsika are divided into three types:

(1) Ukkaṭṭha-paṇḍupalāsika, he who remains seated without arising and who lives on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall down within his reach;
(2) Majjhuṃ-paṇḍupalāsika, he who does not move from tree to tree and subsists only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall down from a single tree; and
(3) Muduṃ-paṇḍupalāsika. he who moves from tree to tree in search of leaves, flowers and fruits that fall naturally from trees to maintain himself.

This is the enumeration of the eight kinds of hermits as given in the commentary on the Ambaṭṭha Sutta.

In addition, the author gives a somewhat different enumeration that is mentioned in the commentary on the Hiri Sutta of the Sutta Nipāta.

[ 27 ] 1. Saputtabhariya,
2. Uñchācarika;
3. Sampattakālika,
4. Anaggipakkika,
5. Ayamuṭṭhika,
6. Dantaluyyaka,
7. Pavattaphalika and
8. Vaṇṭamuttika.

1. A hermit who leads a householder's life earning his living by farming, trading, etc., like Keṇiya and others is called Saputtabhariya.
2. A hermit who, living near a city gate and teaching children of Khattiya and Brahmin families, accepts only grain and crops but not gold and silver is called Uñchācarika.
3. A hermit who lives only on food that is obtained at the meal time is called Sampattakālika.
4. A hermit who lives only on uncooked fruits and vegetables is called Anaggipakka.
5. A hermit who wanders from place to place with metal or stone implements in hand to remove the bark from trees for food whenever he feels hungry and who observes precepts, cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables, is called Ayamuṭṭhika.
6. A hermit who wanders from place to place without metal or stone implements in hand and who removes the bark from trees with his teeth whenever he feels hungry and who observes precepts, cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables. is called Dantaluyyaka
7. A hermit who lives depending upon a natural pond or a forest grove and who going nowhere else, subsists on the lotus stems and stalks from the pond or on the [ 28 ] fruits and flowers from the forest grove or even on the bark of trees (when other kinds of sustenance are not avaiable) and who observes precepts, cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables, is called Pavattaphalika.
8. A hermit who subsists on leaves that fall down naturally and observes precepts cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables is called Vaṇṭamuttika.

In these two lists of eight kinds of hermits, each type is nobler than the preceding type.

Again in these lists, excepting the first type, namely, Saputtabhariya, all are holy persons, observing precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.

Sumedha came under the fourth category (of the list given in the Silakkhandha Commentary), namely, Asamapaka, for one day, i.e. a hermit who collects and lives only on cooked food; for the following days he remained as a hermit of the eighth type, namely, Pandupalasika, one who lives only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall down naturally from trees. According to the list given in the Sutta Nipāta Commentary, he came under the eighth category, namely, Vaṇṭamuttika, i-e a hermit who subsists only on leaves that fall down naturally from trees and who observes precepts, cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.

Three kinds of persons addressed as

()¹ (Shin) in Myanmar.

The Pāḷi "pabbajjā" has been translated "going forth as a recluse" by teachers of old. That is to say "giving up of worldly life", which is of three kinds:

1. Isi-pabbajjā, giving up of worldly life and becoming an isi (hermit),
[ 29 ] 2. Samaṇa-pabbajjā, giving up of worldly life and becoming a samaṇa (monk) and
3. Sāmaṇera-pabbajjā, giving up of worldly life and becoming a Sāmaṇera (novice).
Accordingly, there are three kinds of persons worthy of veneration and addressed as (shin) in Myanmar: isi (hermits), samaṇa (monks) and samaṇera (novices)

The eight disadvantage of a leaf-hut. (p.44)

1. The hut requires the dweller to make efforts to acquire timber and other materials for its construction.
2. It requires the dweller to take constant care and to provide maintenance or reconstruction when the grass roof and mud of the walls decay and fall into ruins.
3. It requires the dweller to make room at any time for a visiting senior elder, who is entitled to suitable accommodation, so that he fails to get concentration of mind.
4. Being sheltered from sun and rain under its cover, the dweller tends to become soft and feeble.
5. With a roof and surrounding walls to provide privacy, it serves the dweller as a hiding place for committing blameworthy, evil deeds.
6. It creates attachment for the dweller, who then thinks, "It is my dwelling place."
7. Settling down in it makes the dweller appear to be living a householder's life with family.
8. It requires the dweller to deal with nuisance created by domestic pests such as fleas, bugs, lizards, etc.

These are the disadvantages of a leaf-hut which Sumedha discerned and which prompted him to abandon the hut.

[ 30 ] The ten advantages of the foot of a tree. (p.44)

1. The foot of a tree does not require the dweller to acquire building materials, there being already a dwelling place provided by nature.
2. It does not require the dweller to take constant care and to provide maintenance.
3. It does not require the dweller to make room for visiting senior elders.
4. It does not provide privacy nor serves the dweller as a hiding place for committing evil deeds.
5. Its dweller is free from stiffness of limbs unlike those dwelling in the open space who suffers from such a discomfort.
6. The dweller does not have to take possession of it as his own property.
7. The dweller is able to abandon it without an attachment saying, "It is my dwelling place."
8. The dweller does not have to request others to vacate the place for purpose of cleaning.
9. It makes a pleasant place for the dweller.
10. Since the dweller easily finds similar dwelling places wherever he goes, he does not cling to it as "my dwelling place."

(Then the author quotes the Hsutaunggan Pyo which gives the same list of disadvantages in verse.)

The Prophecy. (p.48)

As has been said, Sumedha reflected, "What is the use of selfishly-escaping the cycle of births alone," and this is mentioned in the Buddhavaṃsa Text: "Kiṃ me ekena tiṇṇena''.

Quoting this Pāḷi sentence people are fond of saying with a tinge of contempt: "One should not be selfish in this world. A selfish one is a person who seeks only his good. One who seeks only his welfare is a uselessperson".

But if one continues to read the same sentence one would come across " purisena thamadassina ", implying "inspite of the fact that I am a superior person fully aware of my prowess of wisdom, faith and energy", which explicitly qualifiesthe foregoing sentence. All this indicates that only those who, despite their ability, are selfish and not willing to work for others should be blamed. And those, who have no such ability but who say, "I will work for others" and are not true to their word, should be despised, for they do not know the limits of their own capability.

As a matter of fact those who have no ability to work for others should look after their own interest. That is why it is taught in the Atta-vagga, the twentieth chapter of the Dhammapada:

Attadatthaṃ paratthena bahunā' pi na hāpaye
attadatthaṃ abhiññāya sadatthapasuto siyā.
Let him not sacrifice his own interest
by willing to work much for others.
Knowing full well his own limited ability
he should work for his own welfare.

This teaching of the Dhammapada means: "He who is incompetent to work for others but speaks as though he were competent cannot do good for others, nor can he do for himself; thus he suffers a double loss. Therefore he who is incompetent to work for others should seek his own good and work only for himself. He who knows the true extent of hisown capability and works only for himself (should not be blamed as a selfish person but) should be spoken of as a good person who works within the limits of his capability. On the contrary, he, who is qualified like Sumedha to render service to others, runs only after his own interest, ignoring others' should truly be censured as a purely selfish person.

In short, let him work for others if he is competent. If not, let him look after himself so that he may not miss his interest. He who seeks his own interest but pretends to be working for others' welfare is surely a dishonest, cunning, evil person.

Nerañjarā (p. 56)

Nerañjarā as the name of a river is derived from nelajala,. nela meaning 'faultless' and jala 'water'; hence 'the river with pure clean water.'

Another derivation is from nīlajala, nīla meaning 'blue and jala 'water'blue water' signifies 'clear water'; hence 'the river with clear blue water.

Yet another derivation is from nari jarā meaning a kind of musical instrument which produces the sound similar to that of the flowing waters in a stream.

Notes on (prophecy) (p.86)

Under this heading the author discusses not only (prophecy) but also other Myanmar words or phrases. The word is commonly held to be derived from the so--called Pali word by byādita. But there is no stich word as byadita in Pali. It appears to have been formed by ancient scholars in imitation of the Pali words 'byākaraṅa' or 'byākata' says the author.

With reference to the phrases 'stepping out with his right foot' and 'honouring him with eight handfuls of flowers', the author has the following to say:

"Stepping out with his right foot' is the translation of the Pali phrase dakkhinam pādam uddhari. Buddha Dipankara departed not only stepping out with his right foot first but also keeping Sumedha on his right. This mode of departure from the presence of an honourable person is a very ancient Indian custom of showing high esteem.

'Honouring him with eight handfuls of flowers' in Pali is aṭṭhahi pupphamuṭṭhīhi pujetvā which occurs in the jātaka Commentary and the Buddhavaṃsa Commentary. Over this phrase there has been a controversy whether a living Buddha should pay respect to a Bodhisatta who would become a Buddha only many aeons later. Even if one argues that Buddha Dīpaṅkara was paying homage not to the person of Sumedha the Hermit but only to the Sabbaññutañāṇa, Supreme Wisdom, that he would attain, this arguement also is unacceptable as it is inappropriate that the present possessor of Omniscience should pay respect to the Omniscience yet to be attained by a Bodhisatta.

The whole controversy rests on the translation of the word pūjetvā which is connected with puja: the Khuddakapātha Commentary explains that pūjā means sakkāra, 'treating well', mānana 'holding in esteem', and vandanā 'salutation, homage, or obeisance'. The author gives his view that in honouring the hermit Sumedha with eight handfuls of flowers he was not saluting or paying homage or obeisance (vandanā), but he was merely giving good treatment (sakkāra) to Sumedha and showing the high esteem (mānana) in which he held him.

The text mentions the prophetic phenomenon which took place on the day the planet Visākhã conjoined with the full moon. That day is reckoned in the Myanmar Calendar as full-moon day of Kason (April-May). The day is regarded usually to be auspicious being the full-moon day of the first month of the year.

All the previous Buddhas received their prophecy of becoming a Buddha on the full-moon day of Kason. So when Sumedha received the prophecy on the same auspicious day, Devas and Brahmas were quite positive in their proclamation that Sumedha would definitely become a Buddha.

The author further mentions that, the full-moon day of Kason is not only the day on which the prophecy was received but also the day on which Bodhisattas took their last birth in the human world; it is also the day on which they attained Perfect Self-Enlightenment and the day on which they passed away into Nibbāna.

The full moon of Kason is so auspicious in the tradational customs of Myanmar that kings of yore have had themselves anointed and crowned on this particular day.

Devas proclaimed 32 prophetic phenomena (p. 60)

These thirty - two prophetic phenomena occurred on the day Sumedha received of the Prophecy: These phenomena were different from those that took place on the days of the Buddha's Conception, Birth, Enlightennment and Teaching of the First Sermon. They will be dealt with in the volume on Gotama Buddhavamsa. (Volume II of the Chronicle.)

Notes on prophetic phenomena (p.60)

Prophetic phenomena' is the rendering into English of the Pali word nimitta, (nimit) in Myanmar which means a phenomenon foretelling a good or evil event that is likely to take place.

The author then gives a mine of information on the Myanmar synonyms, quoting various sources from Myanmar literature. We have left them out from our translation.

End of Anudīpanī on the Prophecy.

1. A respectful religious title more or less equivalent to Pāḷi Sāmi.

VOLUME_1 A
PART_1
CHAPTER_6

spage-35 spage-355

PĀRAMITĀ (PERFECTIONS).

[ 35 ] (a) The Perfection of Generosity or Generous offering (Dāna Pāramī.) (p.67)

With regard to the Perfection of Generosity, it is clearly stated in the Pāḷi Canon concerning the Chronicle of Buddhas that the Bodhisatta Sumedha admonished himself to start forth with the practice of the Perfection of Generosity since the Bodhisattas of the past had done so. It is clearly seen therefore that amongst the ten Perfections, Perfection of giving of offering or generosity demands the highest priority for fulfilment.

But, in the Sagāthā Vagga of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, we find the verse, "Sīle patiṭṭhāya naro sapañño ... "in which the Buddha explains that when a person of mature wisdom born with three root-conditions,¹ well established in morality, ardently develops concentration and insight wisdom, he can unravel the tangled network of craving. Here the Buddha mentions only the three trainings: Morality (Sīla), Concentration (Samādhi) and Insight Wisdom (Paññā); there is not even a hint about the practice of Generosity.

Furthermore, as the Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification) Commentary which is the expository treatise on the single verse of Sagāthāvagga Saṃyutta quoted above does not touch upon the subject of Generosity and as the Noble Path of Eight Constituents which leads to Nibbāna includes the paths concerning morality, concentration and wisdom only, and there is no path including generosity, some people misconstrue that generosity is not regarded by the Buddha as essential, that it is not conducive to [ 36 ] attainment of Nibbāna, that it generates more rebirths in the cycle of existence and as such generosity should not be cultivated.

The well-known Minister of King Mindon, U Hlaing of Yaw, went so far as to write in his book 'The Taste of Liberation' (Vimuttirasa) that the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people such as the rich man's son, Siṅgāla.

There are many Buddhists who are offended by such observation as 'generosity should not be cultivated' and who are indignant at Yaw minister's writing that 'the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people'. But mere dislike of such views and indignation with them serves no purpose. What is more important and helpful to oneself is to understand correctly what the Buddha means by his teaching.

Concerning the aforesaid verse of the Sagāthāvagga Saṃyutta what one should understand as the true meaning of the Buddha's discourse is as follows: This discourse was 'taught by the Buddha for the benefit of those superior persons who are capable of striving hard for complete eradication of defilements, for the attainment of Arahantship in the present life, with no more rebirth. If such a superior person actually strives hard for the attainment of Arahantship in this very life and if, as a consequence of his strenuous efforts, he becomes an Arahant, there is no need for him to set up a new life. Generosity is an act which generates new life, new pleasures; for the person. who will break the circle of the existence in this very life, there will be no more rebirths. Since there will be no new life for him to reap the benefits of generosity, acts of giving by him are unnecessary. That is why the Buddha, for the benefit of superior persons, dwells in this discourse of the Saṃyutta mainly on morality, concentration and insight wisdom which are more important than generosity for the purpose of eradication of the difilements. The Buddha does not say at all that generosity should not be cultivated.

[ 37 ] Generosity has the quality of making the mind and heart pliable. When someone makes a generous offer of some gift, the very act of giving serves as a decisive support ² to make the mind more pliable and ready for observance of precepts, for cultivation of concentration and for development of insight wisdom through practice of Vipassanā meditation. It is within the experience of every Buddhist, that a feeling of awkwardness and embarassment arises in him whenever he visits, without an offering, monasteries or temples for the purpose of keeping precepts, of listening to the Dhamma talks or for the practice of meditation. Therefore it was customary for the noble disciples like Visākhā to bring an offering such as rice, sweets or fruits in the morning and beverages and medicinal preparations in the evening whenever they went to visit the Buddha.

Everyone who does not become an Arahant in this life will go through more rounds in the cycle of existence. In doing so, it will be difficult for' them to attain favourable states of existence without practising generosity in the present life. Even if they happen to gain a good rebirth, they will find themselves lacking in material possessions without which they cannot do meritorious deeds. (In such a case, it may be argued that they could devote themselves to the practice of morality, concentration and insight wisdom. But this is easier said than done. Indeed, it is only with the support of the beneficial results of past acts of generosity that the three training of morality, concentration and insight wisdom can be cultivated successfully.) Therefore it is most important for those who still have to go on this long journey of saṃsara, the cycle of existence, to cultivate generosity. Only when one is equipped with 'provisions for the long journey', namely, generosity, that can one reach good destination; and there, possessing material wealth as the fruits of generosity of past lives, one can devote oneself to the pursuit of whatever meritorious deeds one wishes to.

Among the travellers travelling round and round this cycle of saṃsara, Bodhisattas are the greatest individuals.

[ 38 ] After receiving a definite prophecy from a Buddha of his gaining Buddhahood, a Bodhisatta continues to fulfil the Perfections for the attainment of Omniscience (Sabbaññuta Ñāṇa) for four incalculable world-cycles plus a hundred thousand aeons. A Pacceka-Buddha i.e. a non-teaching Buddha has to fulfil his Perfections for two incalculable world cycles plus a hundred thousand aeons; an Aggasāvaka, a Chief Disciple of a Buddha for one incalculable world cycles plus a hundred thousand aeons; and a Mahāsāvaka, one of the Leading Diciples, for one hundred thousand world cycles. Therefore, for Bodhisattas who are great travellers on the long journey of saṃsara, Perfection of Generosity is of primary importance and as such, a place of prominence is given to steadfast fulfilment of the Perfection of Generosity in the Pāḷi Text concerning the Chronicle of the Buddhas.

Thus, as the discourse in the Saṃyutta Pāḷi mentioned above was addressed to individuals who are ripe for attainment of Arahantship; those who have not yet fulfilled the Perfections should not say that Perfection of Generosity is not essential.

There are some who ask if it is possible to attain Nibbāna by practising only generosity. It may be replied that, practising only one perfection by itself, neither generosity, nor morality, nor meditation will result in attainment of nibbāna. For practising generosity alone implies that it is not accompanied by morality nor by meditation; similarly, practising meditation alone means that it is practised without the support of morality and generosity. When not restrained by morality, one is liable to indulge in evil acts; if such a person of evil habits attempts to practise meditation, his efforts will be futile like a good seed which, when put on red-hot iron, does not produce a sprout but turns to ashes. Thus it should be noted that it is improper to speak of 'practising generosity alone.'

In the chapter on generosity in the Chronicle of the Buddhas, it is clearly stated that alms should be given irrespective of the recipient's status, whether high, medium [ 39 ] or low. In view of such firm statement, it is neither desirable nor necessary to pick and choose the recipient when one makes an offering.

But in the Dakkhiṇāvibhāṅga Sutta of the Uparipaṇṇāsa, Majjhima Nikāya, the Buddha taught seven kinds of gifts to be made to Saṃgha, the Community of Bhikkhus, and fourteen kinds of gift to be made to individual recipients. It is pointed out with regard to fourteen kinds of gifts made to individual recipients, the merit gained increases according to the recipient going up from the lowliest animals to the highest beings; the most meritorious gift is, of course, that made to the Community of Bhikhus.

Again in the Aṅkura Peta story of Peta Vatthu we find the story of two Devas. When the Buddha taught the Abhidhammā while being seated on the Sakka's throne in the abode of Tavatiṃsa two Devas Indaka and Aṅkura came to listen to the discourse. Whenever powerful Devas came, Aṅkura had to make way for them and move back until he was ten yojanās away from the Buddha.

But Indaka remained in his seat; he did not have to move. The reason is as follows: At the time when the life-span was ten thousand years, Ankura was a human being and was very rich. Throughout that life he made offerings of meals to large numbers of ordinary people, cooking the meals on fireplaces which stretched for twelve yojanās. Because of the merit gained, he had taken rebirth as a Deva. Indaka, however, became a Deva because he had offered a spoonful of rice to the Arahant Anuruddha.

Although the offering lndaka had made was just a spoonful of rice, the recipient was an Arahant and the merit he thus acquired was great and noble. Thus as an equal of the powerful Devas, he had not to make way for them. On the other hand, although Aṅkura had made large amounts of gifts over a very long period of time, the recipients were worldlings and consequently, the beneficial result that accrued was not of high order. And he had to move back every time a powerful Deva arrived. Therefore we find in the Pāḷi text the exhortation 'Viceyya danam databbam yattha dinnam mahapphalam' which means [ 40 ] 'When an offering is to be made, one who can bring the greatest benefit should be chosen as the recipient.'

There seems to be a contradiction between the Pāḷi Text of the Chronicle of the Buddhas and the discourses such as the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta, etc., of other Pāḷi Texts. The seeming contradiction is easily resolved when one remembers that the discourses such as the Dakkhināvibhaṃga Sutta are meant for ordinary people or Devas, whereas the discussions in the Chronicle of the Buddhas are directed exclusively to the Bodhisattas whose goal is attainment of Omniscience, the Sabbaññuta Nāṇa, or the Buddha-Wisdom. This Wisdom is of only one kind and not to be classified into low, medium or great order wisdom. A Bodhisatta has only to give away whatever he has to offer to whoever comes along to receive them, irrespective of his status whether high, medium or low. He does not have to considerhus: "This recipient is of low status; making an offering to him, I shall gain only a low order of Buddha-Wisdom. This recipient is only of medium status; making an offÐfering to him, I shall gain Buddha-Wisdom merely of the medium order". Therefore giving of alms to whoever comes along to receive them without any discrimination is the habitual practice of Bodhisattas who are bent on attainment of Sabbaññuta Nāṇa. On the other hand, the aim of ordinary worldlings, human or Devas, in practising generosity is to gain worldly comforts of their liking, and as such it is natural that they would choose the best recipient for their alms.

It may be concluded, therefore, that there is no contradiction between the texts in the Chronicles of the Buddhas, which are intended for the great Bodhisattas and the discourses such as the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta which are meant for ordinary people and Devas.

Meanings of pāramī.

The possible meanings of the word pāramī have been variously explained in the Cariyā-Pitaka Commentary. Just to let the reader have an idea:

[ 41 ] Pāramī is the combination of parama and ī. Parama means 'most excellent', which is used here in the sense of Future Buddhas who are the most excellent ones.

Or pārami derives from the root para with the suffix ma. The root para means 'to fulfil' or 'to protect.' Because they fulfil and protect such virtues as dāna (alms-giving), etc., Future Buddhas are called parama.

Or para, a prefix, is attached to the root maya meaning 'to bind.' Because Future Buddhas behave as though they bind on and attract other beings to them by means of special virtues, they are called parama.

Or paraṃ, a prefix, is attached to the root maja meaning 'to be pure'; paraṃ means 'more'. Because Future Buddhas are free of mental impurities and far purer than others, they are called parama.

Or paraṃ, a prefix, is attached to the root maya meaning 'to go' paraṃ means 'superior.' Because Future Buddhas go to the superior state of Nibbāna in a special manner, they are called parama.

Or paraṃ, a prefix, is attached to the root mu meaning to determine.' Because Future Buddhas determine their next existence as they do in the case of the present, they are called parama. (What this means to say is that as Future Buddhas are able to ascertain precisely what should be done to make the present existence pleasant and faultless, so are they able to do with regard to the next existence. That is, they have the ability to improve their existences.)

Or paraṃ, a prefix, is attached to the root mi meaning 'to put in'; parami. means 'more.' Because Future Buddhas 'put in' more and more such virtues as sīla (morality). etc., in their mental process, they are called parama.

Or paraṃ, means 'different from' or 'opposed to'; the root is mi meaning 'to crush.' Because Future Buddhas crush all their enemies, which in the form of impurities, [ 42 ] are different from and opposed to all virtues, they are called parama.

Or pāra, a noun, is attached to the root maja meaning 'to purify'; pāra means 'the other shore.' Here saṃsāra is to be taken as 'this shore' and Nibbāna 'the other 'shore.' Because Future Buddhas purify themselves as well as others on the other shore of Nibbāna. they are called pāramī.

Or pāra, a noun, is attached to the root mava meaning 'to bind' or 'to put together.' Because Future Buddhas bind or put beings together in Nibbāna, they are called pāramī.

Or the root is maya, meaning 'to go.' Because Future Buddhas go to the other shore of Nibbāna, they are called parami.

Or the root is mu, meaning 'to understand.' Because Future Buddhas fully understand the other shore of Nibbāna as it really is, they are called parami.

Or the root is mi meaning 'to put in.' Because Future Buddhas put in and convey beings to the other shore of Nibbāna, they are called parami.

Or the root is mi, meaning 'to crush.' Because Future Buddhas crush and eradicate in Nibbāna the impurities which are enemies of beings, they are called pāramī.

(These are the various meanings presented in accordance with sabhāvanirutti (natural etymology). They are not random attempts.)

Paramānaṃ ayaṃ pāramī pāramī means property in the form of practices of Future Buddhas; (or) paramānnaṃ kammaṃ pāramī: pāramī means duties of Future Buddhas; Pāramissa bhāvo pāramitā pāramissa kammaṃ, pāramitā: duties that bring about knowlege that such a person is a Future Buddha.

All this means: A series of duties such as dāna and others to be fulffiled by Future Buddhas is called pāramī (or pāramitā).

[ 43 ] In the Jinalaṅkāra Sub-comrnentery, it is said: "Pāraṃ nibbānaṃ ayan ti gacchanti etāhi ti pāramiyo, nibbānasādhakā hi dānacetanādayo dhammā pāramī ti vuccanti," meaning to say that "Dānacetanā or the volition of alms-giving, etc., which forms the way to Nibbāna, the other side of saṃsāra, should be called pāramī."

In the Cariyāpitaka Commentary it is said: tanhāmāna-diṭṭhīhi anupahatā karunupāyakosalla-pariggahita dānādayo gunā pāramiyo. Pāramī is constituted by virtues such as dāna, etc., that are to be grasped by means of compassion and cleverness. Compassion is shown towards beings who are not spoiled (overwhelmed) by craving, pride and wrong view. Cleverness means wisdom in seeking ways and means. Dāna, etc., (that are to be guided by compassion and wisdom) are to be named pāramī (This explanation is made with special reference to pāramī of Sambuddhas.)

Perfections.

The Ten Perfections are:

(1) Generosity (Dāna, translated sometimes as Charity, Liberality or just alms-giving)
(2) Morality or Virtue (Sīla)
(3) Renunciation (Nekkhamma)
(4) Wisdom (Pañña)
(5) Energy (Viriya)
(6) Forbearance or Patience (Khantī)
(7) Truthfulness (Sacca)
(8) Determination or Resolution (Adhiṭṭhāna)
(9) Loving Kindness (Mettā)
(10) Equanimity (Upekkhā)

(The full meaning of these Perfections will become clear in the following passages). Concerning these Perfections, it has been mentioned above in the Chapter on 'The Rare Appearance of a Buddha' (page 15) that [ 44 ] there are four kinds of cultivation of mind. One of these cultivations deals with the fact that from the time Bodhisattas receive definite assurance from a Buddha about their Buddhahood till the last rebirth when they actually become a completely Self-Enlightened Buddha, there is no period in this very long interval in which they do not practise for fulfilment of the ten Paramīs at the very least, they do not fail to fulfil the perfection of generosity. It fills us with devotional inspiration to reflect on these noble practices pursued by the Bodhisattas.

The characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the Perfections.

A person practising Vipassanā Meditation must come to know the nature of Nāma and Rūpa by means of their characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes. Then only will he come to possess a clear view of them. Similarly it is only when one knows the characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause of the Perfections that one will have a clear understanding of them. Therefore we find in the Commentary to the Cariya Pitaka a separate chapter on the characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause of the Perfections.

A feature common to all the ten Perfections is that they have the characteristic of serving the interest of others. Their function is (a) providing assistance to others (kicca rasa); (b)being endowed with steadfastness (prosperity, success), fulfilment (sampatti rasa)-Their manifestation is (a) the recurring phenomenon of the quest for the welfare and benefits of beings; or (b) the recurring phenomenon of appearing in the mind (of Bodhisattas) that it is a useful means of bringing about Buddhahood. Their proximate cause is (a) great compassion or (b) great compassion and skillfulness as to means and ways.

It is necessary to provide a few explanations on the above definitions. Characteristic (Lakkhana) has two aspects: (i) Samaññasabhāva, the ordinary feature of each thing, i.e. [ 45 ]the feature applicable to others also and (ii) Visesasabhāva, the peculiar feature which is not applicable to others. For example, amongst the material qualities, the Earth-element of the Four Great Elements has two characteristics, namely, impermanence and hardness. Of these, the characteristic of impermanence is a feature applicable to other elements and is thus an ordinary feature only: whereas, the characteristic of hardness is the unique feature of the Earth element only, not shared by others and is thus its special feature.

Function, Rasa, has also two aspects to it. (i) Kiccarasa, function, that which is to be performed; (ii) Sampattirasa, fulfilment, attainment. For example, when meritoriousness arises, it does so after counteracting or obliterating demeritoriousness. Thus it is said that the function of meritoriousness is the counteracting of demeritoriousness. The final fulfilment of a meritorious act is production of beneficial results; thus the function of meritoriousness is the attainment of beneficial results.

Whenever a person ponders deeply on certain mind objects, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind object under consideration; relates to its function; relates to its cause; relates to its effect. The manifestations which thus appear in his mind concerning the mind object he is thinking about is called its manifestation. For example, when a person starts to investigate 'what is meritoriousness?', it would appear in his mind. 'meritoriouness is of the nature of purity' regarding its nature; 'meritoriousness is that which counteracts or obliterates demeritoriousness' regarding its function; 'meritoriousness is possible only when one associates with the good and virtuous regarding its cause; 'meritoriousness is that which enables production of desirable results' regarding its fruition.

The immediate, and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising is called the proximate cause. For example, of many factors which cause the arising of meritoriousness, proper attitude of mind is the immediate and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising [ 46 ] and is therefore termed its proximate cause, Padatthāna, in the Texts.

Some Notable Features concerning Generosity, Charity, Dāna.

The essential thing to know concerning the word Dānapārami (the Perfection of Generosity) is that anything which is given away or any act of giving is Dāna (charity or generosity). There are two kinds of giving:

1. Giving as an act of merit (Puññavisayadāna), and
2. Giving in conformity with worldly practices (Lokavisayadāna).

Acts of giving out of pure faith are acts of merit (Puññavisayadāna) and only such givings constitute the perfection of generosity.

But gifts given in pursuit of love, or out of anger, fear, or foolishness etc., and even giving punishment, giving a sentence of death are worldly giving; they do not form part of Perfection of Generosity.

Dāna (Generosity) and Pariccāga (Abandonment).

In connection with giving which would amount to an act of merit, it is helpful to understand the differences and similarities between what is termed Dāna, translated as 'Generosity', and what is termed as Pariccāga, translated as abandonment, renunciation through charity.

In the Mahāhaṃsa Jātaka of Asītinipāta, there is given an enumeration of the ten duties of a king, viz generosity, morality, abandonment, uprightness, gentleness, selfcontrol, freedom from anger, mercy, forbearance and absence of obstruction. We see therein that generosity and abandonment are listed separately.

According to the Jātaka Commentary, there are ten objects which may be offered as alms: food, drink, [ 47 ] transportation (including umbrellas, slippers or shoes which contribute case in travelling), flowers, perfumed powder, scented unguent or ointment, bed, dwelling places, and facilities for lighting. The volition that prompts the giving of these alms constitutes generosity, Dāna. The volition that accompanies the giving away of any other object of alms is to be regarded as abandonment, Pariccāga. Thus the differentiation here rests on the different kinds of the objects of alms.

But the Sub-commentary of the Jātaka, quoting the views of many teachers, says that' 'giving of offerings with the prospect of enjoying good results in future lives is Dāna; giving rewards to servants and service personnel etc., in order to reap the benefits in the present life is pariccāga.'

A story that gives another illustration of the difference between generosity and abandonment is described in the Commentary to the Cariyāpitaka Pāḷi Text and in the Commentary to Terasanipāta Jātaka. Briefly, Bodhisatta was once a learned brahmin by the name of Akitti. When his parents passed away, he was left with a vast accumulation of wealth. Deeply stirred by religious emotion, he reflected thus: 'My parents and ancestors who have accumulated this great wealth have abandoned them and left; as for me, I shall gather only the substance of this accumulation and depart'. Then having obtained permission from the king. he had a drum beaten all over the country to proclaim the great charity he was going to make. For seven days he personally gave away his riches; but there still remained more.

He saw no point in presiding himself over the ceremony of distribution of his wealth; so leaving the doors of his mansion, treasure houses and granaries wide open, so that whoever wished to may come and help himself to what ever he liked, he renounced the worldly life and went away.

It may be said that in the above story, distribution of wealth personally by the Bodhisatta during the first seven [ 48 ] days is an act of generosity (Dāna), whereas abandoning of the remaining wealth after seven day's personal distribution is an act of abandonment (Pariccāga). The reason for such distinction is that, for an offering to be an act of generosity, Dāna, four conditions must be fulfilled 1. a donor, 2. objects to offer, 3. a recipient actually present to receive, 4. the volition to give. The wise man Akitti's distribution of wealth during the first seven days fulfils all these conditions: hence it is an act of generosity, Dāna. After seven days had passed, he went away leaving his wealth before any recipient came near or arrived to actually receive the gifts; hence it is said that such offering should be regarded as abandonment.

In every day practice which is not an act of merit. when we give something to some one, we just say we 'give'; the Pāḷi word is 'deti'. But when we part with our property with the thought let ''whoever wants it take it; if no one wants it, then let it be" it is no giving away but discarding or abandoning; in Pāḷi, it is not dāna, but cāga.

In short, when we hand over possession of our property to another person, it is said to be given away or an act of charity; when we relinquish the wish to possess the property which is one's own, it is termed abandoning or discarding (as one would cast aside anything which is of no more use).

Another method of differentiation is: giving to noble persons is dāna; giving to persons of lower status is pariccāga. Thus when a king, in performance of the ten duties of a king, makes an offering to noble bhikkhus, brahmins, etc., it would be generosity, dāna; when he offers alms to lowly beggars, it would be pariccāga.

In this way it should be noted how generosity, dāna, is taught distinctly from abandorment, pariccāga.

[ 49 ] Where Dāna and Pariccāga are similar.

Although dāna and pariccāga are treated separately as in the list of the ten duties of a king shown above, in ultimate truth, the two terms cannot be different from each other. When there is dāna, there could be pariccāga: when there is pariccāga, there could be dāna. The reason is that when an offering is made to a recipient, whether he is near or far, it is an act of generosity (dāna); when the sense of ownership is banished from the mind (at the time of giving), this relinquishment is pariccāga. Thus, whenever someone makes a gift, it is always preceded by the thoughtṅ 'I will not make use of it any more' which implies abandonment. Therefore, with acts of merit, there is pariccāga always accompanying generosity.

In the Chronicle of Buddhas of the Pāḷi Cannon also, in dealing with the Ten Perfections, the Buddha mentions only the Perfection of Generosity, not the perfection of abandoning (cāga), because (as explained above) abandonment is included in an act of generosity. As the Text of the Chronicle of Buddhas deals only with the ultimate truth (without considering the conventional usages) it mentions that making an offering to any recipient, whether of high, medium or low status, is generosity (dāna). It is irrelevant to say that it is dāna when offering is made to a noble person and pariccāga when the recipient is of low status.

Similarly, in the Anguttara Nikaya and other Pāḷi Texts, we find the enumeration of the seven niches of a noble person as follows: faith, morality, knowledge, liberality (cāga), wisdom, moral shame (at doing evil) and moral dread (for doing evil). There is only cāga in the list; there is no mention of dāna here, because it is understood that generosity is included in liberality, cāga.

These are examples where dāna and cāga are mentioned without any distinction, with identical meaning.

Where dāna is termed pariccāga.

Although any act of giving may generally be described as Perfection of Generosity, great offerings (of extraordinary nature) are described in the Text as Great Abandonings, [ 50 ] Mahāpariccāga, The Great Abandonings which consist of five kinds of relinquishing of possession are listed differently in different Commentaries.

Commentaries on the Sīlakkhandha, Mūlapaṇṇāsa and Aṅguttara (in explaining the meaning of the word 'Tathāgata') list the Great Abandonings as follows:

(i) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(ii) Relinquishing of the eyes,
(iii) Relinquishing of wealth,
(iv) Relinquishing of kingdom,
(v) Relinquishing of wife and children.

[ 51 ] The Commentary to the Mūlapannāsa (in the exposition on the Cūlasīhanāda Sutta) gives another list:

(i) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(ii) Relinquishing of wife and children,
(iii) Relinquishing of kingdom,
(iv) Relinquishing of one's body (life),
(v) Relinquishing of the eyes.

The Sub-commentary to the Visuddhimagga gives the list:

(i) Relinquishing of one's body (life),
(ii) Relinquishing of the eyes,
(iii) Relinquishing of wealth,
(iv) Relinquishing of kingdom,
(v) Relinquishing of wife and children.

The sub-commentary to the Mahāvagga of the DīghaNikaya (in the exposition on the Mahāpadāna Sutta) gives the list:

(i) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(ii) Relinquishing of the eyes,
(iii) Relinquishing of one's body (life),
(iv) Relinquishing of kingdom,
(v) Relinquishing of wife and children.

The Commentary to the Itivuttaka (in its exposition of the first sutta of the Dukanipāta, dutiyavagga) gives the list:

(i) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(ii) Relinquishing of one's body (life),
(iii) Relinquishing of wealth,
(iv) Relinquishing of wife and children,
(v) Relinquishing of kingdom.

The Commentary to the Buddhavaṃsa gives the list:

(i) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(ii) Relinquishing of one's life,
(iii) Relinquishing of weath,
(iv) Relinquishing of kingdom,
(v) Relinquishing of wife and children

The Commentary to the Vessamtara Jātaka gives the list

(i) Relinquishing of wealth,
(ii) Relinquishing of the limbs,
(iii) Relinquishing of children
(iv) Relinquishing of wife,
(v) Relinquishing of one's life.

The same list is found in the Sub-Commentary to the Jinālaṅkāra but arranged in a different order.

Although each of the above lists is made up of slightly different items, it should be noted that the essentials are the same in all of them namely, external objects and one's own body. Under external objects, we find material things apart from one's own body, viz: relinquishing of wealth; relinquishing of wife and children, very dear to oneself; relinquishing of kingdom, a most important treasure of one's own. With regard to the relinquishing of one's own body, it falls under two modes: one that does not endanger [ 52 ] life, that is relinquishing of the limbs (aṅgapariccāga) and the other endangers life, that is relinquishing of the eyes (nayanapariccāga), or relinquishing of life (Jivitapariccāga) and relinquishing of one's own body (attapariccāga). Here it is explained giving one's eyes or giving one's own body involves the risk of losing one's life, so these are considered to be essentially the same as giving one's life.

The great ceremony of offering performed by King Venssantara when he gave away seven kinds of objects, one hundred each in number, is described by the Commentary as Mahadāna and not Mahāpariccāga. But one can argue that this great offering can be considered as one of the five Great abandonings, namely, great relinquishing of wealth.

Miscellaneous Notes on different aspects of Dāna.

For the edification of those aspirants who ardently strive for attainment of perfect Self-enlightenment of a Buddha, or for Self-enlightenment of a Pacceka Buddha, or for the enlightenment of a disciple of a Buddha, we provide herewith miscellaneous notes on different aspects of Generosity, which forms a part of the conditions for obtaining enlightenment. These notes are given in the form of answers to the following questions:

(i) What things are called Dāna?
(ii) Why are they called Dāna?
(iii) What are the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of Dāna?
(iv) How many types of Dāna are there?
(v) What are the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of Dāna?
(vi) What are the elements that weaken the beneficial results of Dāna?

(This form of treatment will be adhered to when dealing with other Perfections too)

[ 53 ] 1. WHAT THINGS ARE CALLED DĀNA?

In brief, it should be answered that 'the volition to give a suitable thing to give' is galled Dāna, The meaning will become clearer in the following passages.

2. WHY ARE THEY CALLED DĀNA?

The volition is called Dāna because it is responsible for an act of generosity to take place. There can be no generosity without the volition to give; an act of generosity is possible only when there is the volition to give.

In this connection, by volition is meant (i) the volition that arises at the time of donation. It is called muñca cetanā, 'relinquishing' volition, muñca meaning relinquishing. It is only this volition, which accompanies the act of relinquishing, that forms the true element of generosity.

(ii) The volition that arises in anticipation before one makes the donation is called 'Pubba cetanā'. This type of volition can also be considered as Dāna, provided that the object to be given is at hand at the time the intention, "I shall make an offering of this object," occurs. Without the object to be given being actually in one's possession. cherishing the thought of giving may be called 'pubba cetanā' but cannot qualify as Dāna: it can only be a benevolent thought of ordinary merit.

How volition comes to be taken as synonymous with Dāna is based on the grammatical definition of Dīyati anenāti dānam, that which prompts giving is generosity, dāna. (Volition, here, is definitely the determining cause of giving).

Things to be given are also called Dāna from the grammatical definition of Dīyatiti dānam which means objects which could be offered as alms.

Following these grammatical definitions, Texts of the Canons mention two kinds of dāna, namely, volitional dāna and material dāna. In this connection, questions have been asked why objects to be offered are called dāna, since [ 54 ] only volition is capable of producing results and material object is not. It is true that only volition is productive of results because volition is a mental action: but as explained above, volition can be called dāna only if it arises when there exist suitable things to be given. Therefore, material object for giving is also an important contributory factor for an act of giving to qualify as generosity, dāna.

For example, we say 'rice is cooked because of the firewood'. Actually, it is the fire that cooks the rice. But there can be no fire without firewood. So fire burns because of firewood; and rice is cooked because of fire. Thus taking into consideration, these connected phenomena. it is not incorrect to say 'rice is well cooked because of good firewood'. Similarly, we can rightly say 'beneficial result is obtained because of objects of offering'.

Because things to be given away feature importantly in acts of generosity, the Canonical Texts mention different types of Dāna depending on different objects to be offered. Thus in expositions on the Vinaya we find four types of dāna, namely offerings of food, robes, dwelling places and medicines. Although the Vinaya is not concerned with enumeration of types of dāna, since the Buddha allows four kinds of requisites to the Saṃgha, the offerings made to the Saṃgha are naturally listed under these four heads; hence this classification in the Vinaya expositions of four types of dāna, which is primarily based upon different kinds of object of offering.

According to the classification in the exposition on the Abhidhammā, everything in the world comes under six heads correspounding to the six sense objects, there are six kinds of dāna depending upon whether it is a gift of visible object, of sound, of smell, of taste, of touch or of mind-object or dhamma. Here also, although there is no direct mention of six kinds of dāna, in the Abhidhammā Teachings, if gifts were to be made of each of the sense objects. there would be six kinds of offering; hence this classification in the Abhidhammā expositions of six types of dāna.

[ 55 ] In the Suttanta classification, there are ten kinds of dāna, namely, offering of various kinds of food, of drink, of transportation, of flowers, of perfumed powder, of scented unguent or ointment, of bed, of dwelling places and of facilities for lighting. Here again, the actual teaching in the Suttas relates only to the ten classes of objects which may be offered as alms. But when these ten objects are offered as alms, there would be then ten kinds of offering; hence this classification in the Suttanta expositions of ten types of dāna.

Maintaining that the Buddha teaches only these ten objects for offering one should not consider that these are the only gifts to be given; and that other gifts are not allowable. One should understand that the Buddha merely mentions the ten things most commonly offered as alms in practice; or as any material thing can be classified as belonging to one or the other of the ten types of gift, one should take it that by these ten objects are covered also any object which is in daily use by the noble recipient.

From what has been said above, it should be well noted how a material object is an important contributory factor (for the arising) of volitional generosity. It will be seen that the various types of generosity which will be described hence forth include many that relate to objects of offering.

As a resume of this chapter, it should be remembered that volition is dāna because it prompts giving; the material thing is dāna because it is a suitable thing to give.

3. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS, FUNCTIONS, MANIFESTATIONS AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF DĀNA?

(a) Dāna has the characteristic of abandoning (lakkhaṇa)
(b) Its function (kicca-rasa) is destruction of attachment to objects of offering; or it has the property of faultlessness (sampatti-rasa)
[ 56 ] (c) Its manifestation is absence of attachment i.e. a sense of freedom from attachment that appears in the mind of the donor, or knowing that dāna is conducive to good destination and wealth i.e. on thinking of the effects of giving, the donor senses that his act of generosity will result in attainment of rebirth in the human or Deva world and attainment of great wealth.
(d) The proximate cause of giving is having objects of offering in one's possession. Without having anything to give, there can be no act of charity, only imagining that one gives. Thus objects to be offered are the proximate cause of Dāna.

4. HOW MANY TYPES OF DĀNA ARE THERE?

The subject to be dealt with under this head is quite vast; it will entail considerable exercise of mental alertness and intelligence to study them.

Types of Dāna in Groups of Twos.

(1) Offering of material things (Āmisa dāna) and the gift of the teaching (Dhamma dāna). (a) Offering of material things such as alms rice etc., is known as Āmisa dāna. It is also called Paccaya dāna (when the things offered are the requisites of bhikkhus).

Teaching the Buddha Dhamma in the form of talks, lectures etc., is giving the gift of Dhamma. The Buddha said that this is the noblest of all types of dāna. (This classification of dāna into two types is made according to the objects of offering).

In relation to this division of types of dāna, it is necessary to look into the question of what type of dāna accrues to one who sets up pagodas and statues of Buddha.

There are some who maintain that although setting up of pagodas and statues of Buddha involves relinquishing of large amount of wealth, it cannot be an act of generosity, [ 57 ] dāna; because they say, for an act of giving to become dāna, three conditions must be fulfilled: there must be a recipient; there must be an object for offering and there must be a donor. In setting up pagodas and statues of Buddha there is obviously the donor, but who receives his gift, they asked. In the absence of any one to receive the gift, how can it be an act of generosity, dāna?

From their point of view, the pagodas and Buddha statues are not objects to be given as an act of dāna; rather, they serve as aids to recollection of the attributes of the Buddha. A builder of pagodas and Buddha statues has no particular receiver in mind to give them away; he builds them to help produce vivid visualization of the Buddha in the mind of the worshipper enabling him to practise the Recollection of the Virtues of the Buddha. It should therefore be considered, they maintain, that setting up of pagodas and Buddha statues is related to the Buddha, nussati Meditation, cultivation of the Recollection of the Virtues of the Buddha, and is not an act of generosity.

There are, again some people who maintain that as the person who builds pagodas and installs Buddha statues undertakes these works in order to honour, to make homage to the most Homage-Worthy Buddha, his act must be considered as an act of honouring the Buddha (apacāyana), one of the ten qualities contributing to merit (Puññakiriya vatthu). They further say that since this kind of merit, namely, honouring those who are worthy of honour, is a practice of morality (cāritta sīla), it should come under (observance of) sīla and not under (cultivation of 3 Buddhānussati Meditation.

But neither the Merit of Buddhānussati Meditation nor the merit of honouring (apacāyana) involves relinquishing of objects of offering; whereas building a pagoda and installing Buddha statues require an expenditure of a large sum of money. Hence these works of merit must be considered to come under Dāna.

Here the question may be asked, 'if it comes under dāna, will it be an act of dāna when there is no recipient for it?' According to the Texts, whether an offering should [ 58 ] be regarded as an act of dāna may be decided by an analysis of its features under four heads: characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause. We have already provided above what these four features are for a true act of dāna. Now applying this test to the present problems. we find the characteristic of abandoning since the person who builds the pagoda and installs the Buddha statues relinquishes a large sum of money; as its function, there is destruction of attachment to the objects of offering by the donor; the donor senses that his act of generosity will result in attainment of rebirth in the human or deva world and attainment of great wealth; and finally, as the proximate cause, there is the object to be offered. Thus all the four features necessary for an offering to be truly an act of dāna are present here and we may therefore conclude that building a pagoda and installing Buddha statues is a true act of generosity.

As to the question of who receives the gift, it will not be wrong to say that all the Devas and human beings who worship at the pagodas and Buddha statues in memory of the virtues of the Buddha are the recipients of the dāna. At the same time, as they serve as objects of worship for the Devas and human beings in their recollection of the virtues of the Buddha, they also form the objects of offering. All the various material things in the world are utilized in different ways depending on their nature; food materials are utilized for consumption; clothing materials are utilized for wearing; materials for religious devotion and adoration are utilized as objects of veneration.

If wells and tanks are dug near public highways, the general public could use them for drinking water, washing etc., The donor would have no particular recipient in mind when he dug the wells and tanks. When, as he intended, the wayfarers passing by the road make use of his gifts, no one could say that his gift is not an act of dāna; even if he did not finalize it with a libation ceremony. (See below).

Now to wind up the discussion, it is quite proper to say that the builder of a pagoda with Buddha statues is [ 59 ] a donor, the pagoda and Buddha statues are objects of dāna, and Devas and human beings who pay homage to them in adoration are the recipients of the dāna.

An additional question may be asked, 'Is it really proper to refer to pagodas and Buddha statues as objects of dāna; may it not be sacrilegious to classify them as such?' Just as bookcases and shelves are used in the monasteries for holding Cononical Texts which are looked upon as sacred (Dhamma-cetiya), so also pagodas and Buddha statues form storehouses for keeping sacred relics and objects of veneration. So it may be answered that it is quite appropriate to designate them as objects of generosity, dāna.

Whether a libation ceremony is essential for an offering to qualify as an act of generosity.

The point to consider here is whether it constiutes an act of dāna when it is not finalised with a libation ceremony. Actually there is no mention of this requirement in the Texts. The practice is, however, of long standing tradition.

In the Commentary on Chapter 'Cīvarakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahāvagga, we find the following reference to this tradition of libation ceremony. "There was a split among the bhikkhus of a monastery prior to the time of offering of robes after the Buddhist Lent. When the time arrived lay devotees came and offered robes, piled up in a heap, to one group of bhikkhus. The devotees then went to the other group of bhikkhus and performed the ceremony of libation, saying, "We offer to the other group of bhikkhus." As to how the robes should be distributed among the Saṃgha, the Great Commentary says that if it was in a region where they set no great store by the ceremony of libation, the robes belonged to the group (of bhikkhus) which had been directly offered the robes. The group which received only 'the libation' had no claim to the robes. But if it was in a region where they set great store by the libation [ 60 ] ceremony, the group which 'received only 'the libation' had a claim to the robes because the ceremony of libation was performed with them; the other group to which the robes were offered directly had also a claim on them since they had the robes already in their possession. Therefore the two groups must divide the robes equally among them. This method of distribution is a practice followed by tradition in regions on the other side of the Ocean."

Regions on the other side of the Ocean, from Sri Lanka implies 'the Jambudipa', i.e. India. Therefore it should be noted that the ceremony of libation is a practice traditionally followed by the people of India.

Considering that there are regions where they get a great store by the ceremony of libation and there are regions where they set no great store by the ceremony of libation, it cannot be said that an offering constitutes an act of generosity only when it is finalised by a ceremony of libation. The ceremony is important only for those who follow the tradition of libation; it is clear that no significance is attached to it by those who do not follow the tradition. It should be noted therefore that a libation ceremony is not a primary factor for the successful completion of an act of generosity.

(b) With respect to the gift of the teaching, Dhamma dāna, there are, nowadays, people who are unable to teach the Dhamma, but who, bent on making a gift of the teaching, spend money on books, palm-leaf scripts etc., (of Canonical Texts) and make a gift of them. Although such a donation of books is not truly a gift of the teaching, since a reader will be benefitted by reading in the books practices and instruction which will lead one to Nibbāna, the donor may be regarded as one who makes a gift of the teaching.

It is like the case of one who has no medicine to give to a sick person, but only a prescription for a cure of the illness. When the medicine is prepared as prescribed and taken, the illness is removed. Although the person does not actually administer any medicine because of his effective prescription, he is entitled to be regarded as [ 61 ] one who has brought about the cure of illness. Likewise, the donor of books on Dhamma who personally cannot teach the Dhamma enables the readers of his books to attain knowledge of the Dhamma and thus is entitled to be called the donor of the gift of Dhamma.

Now, to conclude this section, the pair of gifts mentioned above, namely, amisa-dāna and Dhamma-dāna may also be called amisa-pūjā, honouring with material things and Dhamma-pūjā, honouring with the teaching; the terms mean the same thing.

The word 'Pūjā' means 'honouring' and is generally used when a younger person makes an offering to an older person or a person of higher status. Depending on this general usage, some people have stated that dāna should be divided into 'pūjā-dāna' and anuggahadāna'; pūjā-dāna, honouring with an offering when the gift is made by a younger person or a person of lower status to an older person or a person of higher status; and 'anuggaha-dāna' offering to render assistance out of kindness 'when a gift is given by an older person or a person of higher status to one who is younger or of lower status.

But as we have seen before in the chapter on 'Prediction'. the word pūjā can be used for both the high or the low and the word 'anuggaha' is likewise applicable to both cases. It is true that generally, 'anuggaha' is used when the giving is made by the high to the low or by the old to the young. But we must, however, remember the usages of 'āmisānuggaha' and 'Dhammānuggaha' to describe the assistance rendered and support given, for the progress and development of the Buddha's Teaching. Here the word anuggaha is employed even though the gift is being made to the highest and the noblest Teaching of the Buddha. Thus it should be noted that the division into pūjadāna and anuggaha-dāna is not an absolute division into two aspects of dāna, but rather a classification following ommon usage.

(2) Offering [ 62 ] of one's own person (Ajjhattika-dāna) and Offering of external properties (Bāhira-dāna). Offerings of one's own person means giving away of one's own life and limbs. Offerings of external properties include giving of all the external material possessions of the donor.

Even in these modern times, we read sometimes in the newspapers news of offerings of one's own limbs at the Pagoda or of 'honouring with the gift' of burning oneself after wrapping up the whole body with cloth and pouring oil on it. Some comments have been made on such kinds of dāna involving one's limbs. According to them, such offerings of one's life and limb are deeds to be performed only by great Bodhisattas and are not the concern of ordinary persons. They doubt if such offerings made by ordinary persons produce any merit at all.

Now to consider whether such views are justified or not. It is not as if a Bodhisatta can suddenly make his appearance in this world. Only after gradually fulfilling the required perfections to the best of his ability, an individual grows in maturity and develops himself stage by stage to become a Bodhisatta. Ancient poets have written thus: Only by gradual venture, one ensures continuous improvement in rebirths to come. Therefore we should not hastily condemn those who make offerings of parts of their body or the whole of their body. If a person, through unflinching volition and faith, very courageously makes an offering of his own body, even to the extent of abandoning his life, he is actually worthy of praise as a donor of the gift of one's own person, Ajjhattika-dāna.

(3) Offering of property (Vatthu-dāna) and Granting of safety (Abhaya--dāna) Vatthu-dāna is concerned with offering of material things. Abhaya-dāna means granting of safety or security with respect to life or property. This is usually an exercise of mercy by kings.

(4) Vattanissita-dāna and Vivattanissita-dāna. Vattanissita-dāna is offering made in the hope of future worldly wealth and pleasures, which mean suffering in the cycle of existences. Vivattanissita-dāna is concerned with offering made in aspiration for Nibbāna which is free of the suffering of rebirth.

[ 63 ] (5) Dāna tainted with fault. (Sāvajja-dāna) and Dāna untainted with fault (Anavajja-dāna). Offering of meals with meat obtained from killing of animals is an example of dāna tainted with fault. Offering of meals which does not involve killing of animals is dāna untainted with fault. The first type is an act of generosity accompanied by demeritoriousness; the second type is dāna unaccompanied by demeritoriousness.

We see the case of some fishermen, who having accumulated wealth from fishing decide to give up the business thinking 'I shall abandon this demeritorious fishing work and adopt a pure mode of livelihood' Engaging in other occupations, they find their prosperity declining; reverting to the old vocation, they grow in wealth again. This is an example of Dāna tainted with fault (Sāvajja-dāna) done in previous lives coming to fruition in the present life. Since that act of dāna was associated with the act of killing, at the time of its fruition too, success is achieved only when associated with act of killing (fishing) when not associated with an act of killing, the previous dāna tainted with fault cannot come to fruition and his wealth declines.

(6) Offering made with one's own hands (Sāhatthikadāna) and offering made by agents on one's behalf or made by others under one's instruction (Anattika-dāna). (That Sāhatthika-dāna brings more beneficial results than the Anattika dāna can be read in the Pāyāsi Sutta of Mahā Vagga, Dīgha Nikāya, of the Pāḷi Canon).

(7) Offerings made with proper and careful preparations (Sakkacca-dāna) and Offering made without proper and careful preparation (Asakkacca-dāna). As an example, offering of flowers may be cited. Having gathered flowers from trees, a donor creates garlands of festoon with them, and arranges them to look as beautiful and as pleasant as possible, and makes his offering of flowers, then it is a sakkacca-dāna, offering made with proper and careful preparations. Without such careful preparations, when flowers are presented as they have been gathered from trees, thinking that the mere gift of the flowers is sufficient [ 64 ] in itself, then it is asakkacca-dāna, offering made without proper and careful preparations.

Some ancient writers have translated 'sakkacca-dāna' and 'asakkacca-dāna' into Myanmar to mean 'offering made with due respect' and 'offering made without due respect'. This rendering has, as often as not, misled the modern readers to think that it means paying due respect or without paying due respect to the receiver of the offering. Actually. 'paying due respect' here means simply 'making careful preparations' for the offering.

(8) Offering associated with wisdom (Nānasampayuttadāna) and offering unassociated with wisdom (Ñāṇavippayutta-dāna). Offering made with clear comprehension of volitional acts and the results they produce is said to be an offering associated with wisdom; when an offering is made without such comprehension and awareness, by just following examples of others making donations, it is Ñānavippayutta-dāna. It must be mentioned that just awareness of cause and its ensuing effect, while an offering is being made," is sufficient to make it an offering which is associated with wisdom. In this connection, an explanation is necessary with respect to some exhortations which run like this: Whenever an offering is made, it should be accompanied by Insight Knowledge, Vipassanā Ñāṇa, in this manner: I the donor of the gift, am anicca, of impermanent nature; the object of offering is also anicca, of impermanent nature; and the recipient of the gift is also anicca, of impermanent nature. The impermanent I am offering the impermanent gift to the impermanent recipient. Thus you should contemplate whenever you make an offering of gifts.'

This exhortation is made only to encourage, the practice of developing Insight Knowledge, Vipassanā Nāṇa. It should not be misunderstood that an act of generosity is not one associated with wisdom, if the donor does not practise contemplation as exhorted.

As a matter of fact, whoever wants to develop real Vipassanā-ñāṇa should first of all discard the notion of

[ 65 ] I, he, man, woman, i.e. the illusion of I, the illusion of Self to discern that they are merely material aggregates and mental aggregates. Then one has to go on contemplating so as to realise that these aggregates of mind and matter are of the nature impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality. Without differentiation into aggregates of mind and matter, if one were to contemplate on conventional concepts of 'I am anicca; the object of offering is anicca; the recipient is anicca', no real Insight Knowledge would be possible.

(9) Offering made hesitatingly and only after being urged is Sasaṅkhārika-dāna; Offering made spontaneously without being urged is Asaṅkhārika-dāna. Here urging means prompting or entreating earnestly someone to give when he is hesitating or reluctant to do so. When offering is made only with such prompting. But a simple request should not be taken as urging. For example, a person who has not made any decision yet, whether he will make a donation or whether he does not wish to make a donation, is approached by someone with a request for some alms contribution; and that person gives willingly without any hesitation. This is a spontaneous gift in response to a simple request; it is therefore in Asaṅkhārikadāna (one without prompting), and should not be called a Sasaṅkhārika-dāna (just because it is made after a request). Another person is similarly-approached and similarly requested to make a contribution; he is reluctant at first and refuses to do so. But when the request is repeated with a prompting 'Do make a gift; please don't flinch' he makes a contribution. His dāna made as a consequence of urging is of Sasaṅkhārika-dāna type (one with prompting). Even in the case where no one has made an approach to request for dāna, if one first thinks of making an offering, and then shrinks away from the idea, but after much selfpersuasion, self-inducement, finally makes the gift, his dāna is of Sasaṅkhārika type too.

(10) Offering made while one is in a joyful mood with a happy frame of mind is Somanassa-dāna; Offering made with a balanced state of mind, neither joyous nor sorrowful but equipoised is Upekkhā-dāna. (When the act of giving [ 66 ] is accompanied by pleasure, it is Somanassa-dāna; when it is accompanied by equanimity it is Upekkhā-dāna).

(11) Offering of property earned in accordance with Dhamma by just means is Dhammiya-dāna; Offering of property earned by immoral means such as stealing, robbing is Adhammiya-dāna. Although earning of property by immoral means is not in accord with dhamma, offering as alms of much property is nevertheless an act of merit; but the good results accruing from this type of dāna cannot be as great as those obtained from the first type, the dhammiya-dāna. A comparison can be made of these two different results with types of plant that will grow up from a good seed and from a bad seed,

(12) Offering made with hopes of gaining worldly pleasures is Enslaving dāna, Dāsa dāna, the offering that will enslave one. Being a slave to craving for sensepleasures, one makes this kind of dāna to serve one's Master, the Craving to fulfil its wishes. Offering made with aspiration for attainment of the Path and Fruition, the Nibbāna, is dāna for freedom, Bhujissa-dāna (offering made in revolt against the dictates of the Master, the Craving).

Sentient beings in the endless round of existences desire to enjoy the delightful pleasures of the senses (visible objects, sounds, smells, tastes, touch). This desire to revel in the so called pleasures of the senses is called Craving. Every moment of their existence is devoted to satisfying that Craving; fulfilling the needs of that Craving, they have become its servants. Continuous striving, day and night throughout their life for wealth is nothing but fulfilment of the wishes of the Craving which demands the best of food, the best of clothing and the most luxurious way of living.

Not content with being a slave to Craving in the present life, working- to fulfil its every need, we make acts of dāna to ensure luxurious living in future. This type of offering accompanied by a strong wish for enjoyment of worldly pleasures continuously for lives to come, is definitely an enslaving dāna, Dāsa dāna.

[ 67 ] This type of dāna in fulfilment of the wishes of Craving and which ensures servitude to Craving throughout the endless round of existences is performed, thinking it to be the best, before one encounters the Teachings of the Buddha. But once we are fortunate enough to hear the Buddha Dhamma, we come to understand how powerful this Craving is, how insatiable it is, how much we have to suffer for fulfilling the wishes of this Craving. Then resolving 'I will no longer be a servant of this terrible Craving, I will no longer fulfil its wishes, I will rebel against it, I will go against it and in order to uproot, to eradicate this evil Craving, one makes offerings with aspiration for attainment of the Path and Fruition, the Nibbāna. This dāna is called dāna made for freedom. Bhujissa-dāna (offering made in revolt against the dictates of the Master, Craving).

(Whole of page and the first three lines on page deal with expositions on ancient Burmese word which has nothing to do, with types of dāna; they are therefore left out from the translation.)

(13) Offering of things of permanent, immovable nature such as pagodas, temples, monasteries, rest houses and digging wells, tanks etc., is Thāvara-dāna. Offerings of movable nature, meant for temporary use such as food, robes etc., movable gifts is Athāvara-dāna.

(14) Offering made with accompaniment of supplementary materials that usually go along with such on offering is Saparivāra-dāna. For example, in offering robes, as main item of gifts when it is accompanied by suitable and proper accessories and requisites, it is a Saparivāra-dāna; when there are no other objects of offering besides the main item of robes, it is a gift without accompanying things, Aparivāra-dāna. The same differentiation applies to offerings made with other forms of gifts.

The special characteristic marks on the body of Boddhisattas who have large retinue attendant upon them are the benefits that result from Saparivāra type of dāna.

[ 68 ] (15) Offering made constantly or regularly such as offering of alms food to the Saṃgha every day is Constant dāna, Nibaddha dāna; offering made not constantly, not on a regular basis but only occassionally when one is able to is Anibaddha dāna, occassional offering.

(16) Tarnished offering, Paramattha-dāna Untarnished offering, Aparamattha-dāna. Offering which is tarnished by craving and wrong view is Parāmattha-dāna; offering which is not corrupted by craving and wrong view is Aparamattha-dāna. According to the Abhidhammā, one is corrupted when led astray by wrong view alone; but wrong view always co-exists with craving. When wrong view corrupts and leads one astray, craving is, also involved. Therefore both craving and wrong view are mentioned above. And this is how craving and wrong view bring about corruption. Having made an offering, if one expresses an ardent, wholesome wish, 'May I attain speedily the Path and Fruition, Nibbāna as a result of this act of merit', the offering becomes one of Vivattanissita type [see type (4) above], and it could serve as a strong sufficing condition for attainment of the Path and Fruition, Nibbāna. But instead of making such a wholesome wish for Nibbāna, when one, corrupted and led astray by craving and wrong view, aspires a result of this act of merit, may I become a distinguished Deva such as Sakka, the king of Tāvatiṃsa abode, or just a Deva of the durable divine realms. his dāna cannot serve as a sufficing condition for attainment of Nibbāna and is classed as mere Paramattha-dāna, the dāna which is bereft of the sufficing condition for attainment of Nibbāna, being tarnished by craving and wrong view. The dāna which is not tarnished by craving and wrong view but is made with the sole purpose of attaining Nibbāna is classed as Aparamattha-dāna.

Much Charity can also be practised outside the Teaching of the Buddha; but dāna of Parāmattha type is only possible then. It is only within the Teaching of the Buddha that dāna of Aparamattha type can be practised. So while we are blessed with the rare, opportunity of meeting with the Teachings of the Buddha, we should strive our utmost to ensure that our offerings are of the Aparāmattha type.

[ 69 ] (17) Offering made with what is left over, what is inferior, wretched is Ucchiṭṭha-dāna; Offering made with what is not left over, what is not inferior, wretched is Anucchiṭṭha-dāna. Suppose, while preparations are being made for a meal, a donee appears and one donates some of the food that has been prepared before one has taken it; it is considered to be 'the highest gift' (agga-dāna) and it is also an anucchiṭṭha-dāna since the offering is not the leftover of a meal. If the donee arrives while one is eating the meal, but before eating is finished, and one makes an offering of the food taken from the meal one is eating, that is also considered to be an Anucchiṭṭha-dāna; it can even be said to be a noble gift. When the offering is made of the food left over after one has finished eating, it is a gift of the leftover, an Ucchiṭṭha-dāna; a wretched, inferior one. It should be noted, however, that the humble offering made by one who has nothing else to give but the leftover meal could well be called an Anucchit..tha-dāna, It is only when such an offer is made by one who can well afford to make a better gift' that his gift is regarded as a wretched, inferior one, Ucchiṭṭha-dāna.

(18) Offering made while one is still alive is Sajivadāna; Offering which is meant to become effective after one's death: 'I give such of my property to such and such a person. Let him take possession of them after my death and make use of them as he wishes' is Accaya-dāna.

A bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) is not permitted to make an Accaya type of dāna, i.e. he cannot leave his properties as gifts for others after death. Even if he should do so, it does not constitute an act of dāna; the would-be recipient also has no right of possession to them. If a bhikkhu gives from his property to another bhikkhu while he is still living, the receiver is entitled to what is given him; or while the bhikkhu is still alive, some bhikkhu who is on intimate terms (Vissāssagaha) with him can take it and come to possess it; or if he owns something jointly (dvisantaka) with another bhikkhu, when he dies the surviving bhikkhhu becomes the sole owner. Unless these conditions are fulfilled, namely, giving his property during his lifetime, taking possession of it by reason of intimacy [ 70 ] while he is still alive, or possessing it through dual ownership, the bhikkhu's property becomes the property of the Saṃgha, the Order of Bhikkhus, when he dies. Therefore, if a bhikkhu makes an Accaya-dāna, saying 'I give such of my property to such and such a person when I die. Let him take possession of them', it amounts to giving a property which by then belongs to the Order of Bhikkhus. His giving does not form an act of dāna and the would-be recipient is also not entitled to its ownership. It is only amongst the laymen that such kind of gift, Accaya-dāna, is possible and legal.

(19) Offering made to one or two separate, individual persons is Puggalika-dāna; Offering made to the whole Order of Bhikkhus, the Saṃgha, is Saṃghika-dāna. Saṃgha means group, assemblage or community; here, the whole community of the Ariya disciples of the Buddha is meant. In making an offering intended for the Saṃgha, the donor must have in his mind not the individual Ariya disciples that constitute the Order, but the community of the Ariya disciples as a whole. Then only, his offerings will be of the Saṃghika type.

Dakkhinavibhaṅga Sutta (of Majjhima Nikāya Pāḷi Canon) gives an enumeration of 14 kinds of gifts to individuals, Puggalika dāna, and 7 kinds of gifts to the Saṃgha. Saṃghika dāna. It is useful to know them.

14 kinds of gifts to individuals.

(1) Offering made to a Buddha,
(2) Offering made to a Pacceka-Buddha, a non-teaching Buddha,
(3) Offering made to an Arahant or to one who has attained the Arahatta phala stage,
(4) Offering made to one who is striving to realise Arahatta phala or one who has attained the Arahattamagga stage,
[ 71 ] (5) Offering made to an Anāgāmi or to one who has attained the anāgāmiphala stage,
(6) Offering made to one who is striving to realise Anāgāmiphala or one who has attained the Anāgāmimagga stage,
(7) Offering made to a Sakadāgāmi or to one who has attained the Sakadāgāmiphala stage,
(8) Offering made to one who is striving to realise Sakadāgāmiphala or one who has attained Sakadāgāmimagga stage,
(9) Offering made to a Sotāpanna of to one who has attained the Sotāpatti stage,
(10) Offering made to one who is striving to realise Sotāpattiphala or one who has attained Sotāpattimagga stage,
(11) Offering made to recluses (outside the Teachings of the Buddha or when the Teaching is not extant) who are accomplished in Jhāna or Supernormal Power attainments,
(12) Offerings made to an ordinary lay person who is possessed of morality,
(13) Offerings made to an ordinary lay person who is devoid of morality, and
(14) Offering made to an animal.

Of these 14 kinds of offering made to individuais, giving one full meal to an animal will bring wholesome results of long life, good looks, physical well-being, strength, and intelligence for one hundred lives. Then in an ascending order. giving one full meal to a lay person of poor morality will bring these wholesome results for one thousand lives; to a lay person of good morality at a time when Buddha's teachings are not extant and he has no [ 72 ] opportunity to take refuge in the Triple Gem, for a hundred thousand lives; to recluses and ascetics accomplished in Jhāna attainments, for ten billion lives; to lay men and novitiates (during a period when the teachings of Buddha are extant) who take refuge in the Triple Gem , and up to the Noble person who has attained the Sotāpattimagga. for an innumerable period (asaṅkhyeyya) of lives; and to persons of higher attainment up to the Buddha, for countless periods of lives. (According to the Commentary, even one who only takes refuge in the Triple Gem may be considered as a person who is practising for realisation of Sotāpattiphala).

There is no mention of bhikkhus of loose morality in the above list of 14 kinds of recipients of offerings made to individuals. The Buddha's enumeration of offering made to a person devoid of morality concerns only the period when the Buddha's Teaching is not extant. For these reasons, there is a tendency to consider that offerings made to bhikkhus of impure morality while the Buddha's teachings are still extant are blameworthy. But one should remember that any one who has become a Buddhist at the very least takes refuge in the Triple Gem; and the Commentary says that whoever takes refuge in the Triple Gem is a person who is practising for realisation of Sotāpattiphala. Futhermore when an offering made to an ordinary lay person devoid of morality (while the Teaching of Buddha is not extant) could be of much benefit, there is no doubt that offerings made to an ordinary lay person devoid of morality while the Teaching of the Buddha is still extant could be beneficial too.

Again, in the Milinda-Pañhā Text, Nāgasena Thera explains that an immoral bhikkhu is superior to an immoral lay person in ten respects such as reverence shown to the Buddha, reverence shown to the Dhamma, reverence shown to the Saṃgha etc., Thus, according to the Milinda Pañha, an immoral bhikkhu is superior to an immoral lay person; and since he is listed by the Commentary as one who is practising for realisation of Sotāpattiphala, one should not say that it is blameworthy and fruitless to make an offering to a bhikkhu devoid of morality.

[ 73 ] There is yet another point of view in connection with this matter. At a time when there is no Teaching of the Buddha, immoral bhikkhus cannot cause any harm to the Teaching; but when the Teaching is in existence, they can bring harm to it. For that reason, no offering should be made to bhikkhus devoid of morality during the period when there is the Buddha's Teaching. But that view is shown by the Buddha to be untenable.

At the conclusion of the discourse on seven kinds of offerings to the Saṃgha, Saṃghika-dāna (see below), the Buddha explains to Ānanda:

Ānanda, in times to come, there will appear vile bhikkhus, devoid of morality, who are bhikkhus only in name, who will wear their robes round their necks. With the intention of giving to the Saṃgha, offerings will be made to these immoral bhikkhus. Even when offered in this manner, a Saṃghika-dāna, an offering meant for the whole Saṃgha, I declare, will bring innumerable, inestimable benefits.

There is still another point to take into consideration. Of the Four Purities of Generosity (Dakkhiṇā Visuddhi), the first Purity is: Even if the donee is of impure morality, when the donor is moral, the offering is pure by reason of purity of the donor. For these reasons also, one should not say that an immoral bhikkhu is not a donee, and that no benefit will accrue by making an offering to him.

It should be well noted, therefore, it is blameworthy only when we make an offering with bad intentions of approving and encouraging an immoral bhikkhu in his evil practices; without taking into considerations his habits. if one makes the offering with a pure mind, thinking only 'one should give if some one comes for a donation', it is quite blameless.

Seven kinds of gifts to the Saṃgha,Saṃghika-dāna.

(1) Offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs led by the Buddha, while the Buddha. is still living.
[ 74 ] (2) Offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs after Parinibbāna of the Buddha;
(3) Offering made to the community of bhikkhus only;
(4) Offering made to the community of bhikkhunīs only;
(5) Offering made (with the whole Saṃgha in mind)to a group of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs as nominated by the Order, such an offering is made when the donor could not afford to give offerings to all the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis; the donor approaches the Order and requests it to nominate a certain number (he could afford to give) of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis to receive his offerings. The Saṃgha nominates the required number of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis and the donor makes his offerings to that group of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs (with the whole Saṃgha in mind);
(6) Offering made to a group of Bhikkhus only (with the whole Saṃgha in mind) after requesting the Saṃgha to nominate the number he could afford to give; and
(7) Offering made (with the whole of Saṃgha in mind) to a group of Bhikkhunīs only after requesting the Saṃgha to nominate the number he could afford to give.

Of these seven kinds of Saṃghika-dāna, it may be asked if it is possible to make an offering of the first kind, namely, an offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs led by the Buddha, after the Parinibbāna of the Buddha. The answer is 'Yes, it is possible' and the offer should be made in this manner: after placing a statue of the Buddha containing relics in front of the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs who have gathered for the ceremony, the offering should be made saying, 'I make this offering to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis led by the Buddha'.

Having done an offering of the first kind, the question arises as to what happens to the objects of offering intended for the Buddha. Just as the property of the father customarily goes to the son, so too should the offerings [ 75 ] intended for the Buddha go to the bhikkhu who does devotional duties to the Buddha or to the community of bhikkhus. Especially, if the objects offered include such materials as oil, ghee. etc., they should be utilized in offering of lights by oil lamps to the Buddha; pieces of cloth included in the offering should be made into banners and streamers to be offered in worship.

During the Buddha's lifetime, people were generally not disposed to form attachment to, or concerning themselves with, individual personalities; they had their mind bent on the Order of bhikkhus as a whole, and thus were able to make much offering of the noble Saṃghika-dāna kind. Consequently, the needs of the members of the Order were mostly met by the distributions made by the Order; they had little need to rely on lay man and lay woman donors and therefore had little attachment to them as 'the donors of my monastery, the donors of my robes etc.' Thus, the bhikkhu could be free of bonds of attachments.

Brief story of the Householder Ugga.

Those desirous of making offerings of pure Saṃghikadāna type should emulate the example set by the householder Ugga. The story of the householder Ugga is found in the second discourse of the Gahapati Vagga, Aṭṭhakanipāta of Aṅguttara Nikāya Pāḷi Canon.

At one time when the Bhagavā was residing at Elephant Village in the country of Vajjī, the Bhagavā addressed the bhikkhus, saying 'Bhikkhus, you should regard the householder Ugga of Elephant Village as a person endowed with eight wonderful attributes'. Stating thus briefly without giving any elaboration, the Bhagavā went inside the monastery.

Then a bhikkhu went in the morning to the house of the householder and said to him, 'Householder, the Bhagavā has said that you are a person endowed with eight wonderful attributes. What are those eight wonderful attributes which the Bhagavā said you are endowed with ?

[ 76 ]"Venerable Sir, I am not exactly sure what specific eight wonderful attributes the Buddha said I am endowed with but please listen with proper attention to an account of the eight wonderful attributes which I actually possess." Then he gave the following full description of the eight wonderful attributes as follows:

(1) The first time I saw the Buddha was when I was drinking and enjoying myself in the forest of Ironwood flowers. As soon as I saw the Buddha coming in the distance, I became sober and devotional piety and faith in the virtues of the Buddha rose in me. This is the first wonder.

(2) At that very first meeting with the Buddha, I took refuge in the Buddha and listened to his discourse. As a result, I became a Sotāpanna, a 'Stream-winner', and established in the observance of Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla. This is the second wonder.

(Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla is similar to the five precepts habitually observed by lay people except that, instead of the precept 'abstain from sexual misconduct', it has the precept 'I abstain from any form of sexual intercourse'. With the usual formula of the five precepts, and one abstains from sexual intercourse with any one other than one's own wife; but the Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla requires total abstinence of sex, not even with one's own wife).

(3) I had four wives; as soon as I arrived back home, I said to them: I have vowed to observe the precept of total abstinence; whichever of you wishes to remain living in this house may do so enjoying my wealth as you like and doing meritorious deeds with it; whoever wants to go back to her parents home is also free to do so; and whoever wants to get married to another man may just tell me to whom I should give you'. The eldest of my four wives expressed the wish to be given to a certain person whom she named. I sent for the man and holding my eldest wife with my left hand and a jug of water in my right hand, I gave away my wife to the man. In making [ 77 ] this gift of my wife to the man, I ramained completely unmoved, unaffected. This is the third wonder.

(4) I have resolved to use all my wealth jointly with people of good moral character. This is the fourth wonder.

(5) I always approach a bhikkhu with all due respect, never without reverence; if the bhikkhu gives me a talk on Dhamma, I listen to his discourse with respect only, never without reverence; if the bhikkhu does not give me a talk on Dhamma, I give him a discourse. This is the fifth wonder.

(6) Whenever I invite the Saṃgha to my house to make some offerings, Devas would come ahead of them and inform me: 'Householder, such and such bhikkhus are enlightened noble persons, Ariyas; such and such bhikkhus are ordinary persons of morality; such and such bhikkhus are devoid of morality.' That the devas come and give me this prior information about the bhikkhus is nothing surprising to me; the wonder is that when I make offering of meals or material things to the Saṃgha such thoughts as 'I will offer much to this individual because he is an enlightened noble person, of good morality; or I will offer little to this individual since he is of poor morality' would never occur to me. As a matter of fact, without differentiation as to who is noble, who is moral or who is immoral, I make my offerings impartially to each and every body. This is the sixth wonder.

(7) Venerable sir, Devas come and tell me that the doctrine of the Buddha is well-taught, it has the merit of being well-taught. This news conveyed to me by the Devas is nothing surprising to me. The wonder is that, on such occassions, I tell the Devas in reply, "Devas, whether you tell me so or not, verily, the doctrine of the Buddha is well-taught; (He believes that the doctrine of the Buddha is well-taught, not because the Devas tell him, but because he himself knows it to be so). Although I hold such communications with Devas, I feel no pride in that the Devas come to me and that I have conversations with them. This is the seventh wonder.

[ 78 ] (8) There is nothing surprising too, if I should pass away before the Bhagavā did and the Bhagavā would foretell: 'the householder Ugga has completely drestroyed the lower Five Fetters which lead to rebirth in the lower sensuous realms; he is an Anāgamī. Even before the Buddha's prediction, I have become an Anāgami and I have already known this. This is the eighth wonder.

Of these eight wonders described by the Householder Ugga, the sixth is concerned with making impartial offerings to the noble, the moral or the immoral alike. It is necessary to know how one can be imparttally minded in such circumstances. The impartial attitude can be understood to be brought about in this manner, 'As I have made the invitation with intention to give to the Saṃgha, the whole Order, when I make the offering to a noble one, I will not recognise him as such; I will not consider that I am making the offering to a noble one; I will keep in mind only that I am making my offering to the Saṃgha, the noble disciples of the Buddha as a whole. And when I make the offering to an immoral person, I will not recognise him as such; I will not consider that I am making the offering to an immoral person; I will keep in mind only that I am making an offering to the Saṃgha, the noble disciples of the Buddha as a whole. In this manner, impartiality may be maintained.

Emulating the example set by the Householder Ugga, when making an offering one should ignore the status of the recipient, keep aside personal feelings towards him, and strive to keep firmly in mind only the Order of bhikkhus as a whole, so that his dāna may be of the noble Saṃghika dāna type. As taught explicitly by the Buddha in the Dakkhinā-Vibhaṅga Sutta mentioned above, when an offering is of Saṃghika type, that is with the whole community of bhikkhus in mind when making it, it could bring innumerable, inestimable benefits to the donor, even if the recipient is an immoral person devoid of virtues.

An offering is of Saṃghika-dāna type when it is made with full reverence to the Saṃgha; but it is not always easy [ 79 ] to do so. Suppose a person decides to maka a Saṃghika type of offering, having made the necessary preparations, he goes to a monastery and addresses the bhikkhus: 'Reverend Sirs, I wish to make a Saṃghika type of offering; may you designate someone from amongst the Saṃgha as its representative'. Should the bhikkhus nominate a novice whose turn it is to represent the Saṃgha, the donor is likely to be displeased; should they choose an elderly Thera of long standing to represent them, he is likely to be overwhelmed with intense delight, exulting 'I have an elderly Thera of long standing as my donee'. Such generosity affected by the personality of the donee cannot be a perfect Saṃghika type of offering.

Only if one can accept the representative nominated by turn by the Saṃgha without any misgiving and without concerning oneself about whether the recipient is a novice or a bhikkhu, a young bhikkhu or an elderly bhikkhu, an ignorant bhikkhu or a learned bhikkhu, and makes one's offering, thinking only 'I make my offering to the Saṃgha', with full reverence to the Saṃgha, one makes a truly Saṃghika-dāna.

Story concerning a donor of a monastery.

This incident happened on the other side of the ocean, i.e. in India. A rich householder who had already donated a monastery intended to make an offering to the Saṃgha. After making necessary preparations, he went to the Order of bhikkhus and addressed them, 'Venerable sirs, may you designate someone to receive my offering for the Saṃgha'. It happened that it was the turn of an immoral bhikkhu to represent the Saṃgha for alms. Although the man knew well that the designated bhikkhu was immoral, he treated him with full respect: the seat for the bhikkhu was prepared as for a ceremonious occassion, decorated with a canopy overhead, and scented with flowers and perfumes. He washed the feet of the bhikkhu and anointed them with oil very reverentially as if he were attending upon the person of the Buddha himself. He then made his offering to the bhikkhu paying full homage to the Saṃgha.

[ 80 ] That afternoon, the immoral bhikkhu came back to his house and standing at the doorway asked for a hoe he needed to make some repairs in the monastery. The donor of the monastery did not even bother to get up from his seat; he simply pushed the hoe towards the bhikkhu with his feet. The members of his family asked of him: "Respected sir, this morning you had heaped upon this bhikkhu so much veneration that beggars description; now you have shown him not even a small part of that deference. Why is this, difference between the morning and the afternoon in your attitude towards the bhikkhu?" The man replied, "My dear ones, the respect I was showing this morning was towards the Saṃgha not to this immoral bhikkhu".

Some notable points for consideration concerning offerings made to individual, Puggalika-dāna, and to the Saṃgha, Saṃghika-dāna.

There are some people who maintain that if some person should approach one for alms and if one knew beforehand that the person was of bad morality, one should not make any offering to that person; if one should do so, it would be like watering a poisonous plant.

But it could not be said that every act of offering made knowingly to immoral persons is blameworthy. It is the volition of the giver that must be taken into account here. If the donor should approve of the bad habits of the recipient and give with a view to give him support and encouragement for continuance of his immoral practices, then only his gift would be like watering a poisonous plant. It the donor does not approve of the bad habits to the recipient and has no mind to encourage him to continue with his bad practices, but emulating the example of the monastery donor described above, if he makes his gift in such a way that it becomes a true Saṃghika-dāna, then no blame can be attached to such an offering.

Again there are some who maintain that whether the recipient is of good moral character or bad moral character is no concern of the donor's; it only concerns the [ 81 ] recipient. Therefore, remaining indifferent to the character of the recipient, whether good or bad, the donor should give bearing in mind, 'This is a noble person, an ariya (or an Arahant)'. They maintain that this act of offering is blameless and as fruitful as making an offering to an Arahant. This point of view is also untenable.

Disciples of other teachers who are not in a position to know whether a person is an Ariya, or an Arahant. wrongly believe their teachers to be Noble Ones, enlightened Arahants. This sort of belief called Micchādhimokkha, making the wrong decision or conclusion, is demeritorious. Surely it would be demeritorious and would be making a wrong decision if one were to bear in mind 'these are noble, enlightened Arahants' when one knew full well that they were not. It is not proper, therefore, to hold such views.

When faced with such recipients in making one's offering, the proper attitude to bear in mind should be "Bodhisattas in fulfilment of Perfection of Generosity make their offering without discriminating between persons of high, medium or low status or development. I will also emulate the examples of the Bodhisattas and make my offerings to whoever comes for them without discrimination. In this way, one would not be giving support and encouragement to the practice of bad habits and would not be 'making wrong decisions or conclusions about the recipients' development; the act of offering would thus be free from blame or fault.

Controversies and difficulties arise only in the case of offerings made to individuals, puggalika-dāna, because there exist various kind of individuals, good or bad; in the case of offerings made to the Saṃgha, Saṃghika-dāna, there exists only one kind of Saṃgha, not two-good and bad. (Here the noble disciples of the Buddha, the Ariyas, are meant). There is no distinction amongst the Ariya Saṃgha as high, medium or low status or development they are all equally noble. Therefore, as explained above, whenever a donee appears before one, without taking into consideration his character, one should make the offering [ 82 ] with the thought 'I make my offering to the disciples of the Buddha, the noble community of bhikkhus'. Then this offering is of Saṃghika-dāna type and the recipient is the Saṃgha; the person who appears before him to receive the offering is merely the representative of the Saṃgha. However low that person may be in his morals, the true recipient of the offering is the noble Saṃgha and therefore this is truly a noble gift.

Some people consider that it is very difficult to put into actual practice the advice to ignore the personal character of the immoral recipient who has appeared before one and to make one's offering with the mind directed not to him but to the noble Saṃgha, regarding him only as a representative of the Saṃgha. The difficulty arises only because of lack of habitual practice in such matters. In making reverential vows to the images and statues of the Buddha, regarding them as the Buddha's representatives, one is so accustomed to the practice of projecting one's mind from the images and statues to the person of the living Buddha that no one says it is difficult. Just as the householder Ugga of the Buddha's time and the monastery donor of Jambu Dīpa had habituated themselves to make offerings to an immoral bhikkhu as a representative of the Buddha, so also Buddhists of modern times should discipline their mind to become accustomed to such an attitude.

Four kinds of offerings to the Saṃgha as described in the Vinaya Pitaka.

The Vinaya Pitaka, the Book of Discipline for members of the Order, gives a description of the four categories of offerings made intentionally for the Saṃgha. But these four categories of Saṃghika-dāna do not concern the lay donor; only the seven types of Saṃghika-dāna mentioned above concern them. The Vinaya distinctions are made for the Order only so that they would know how to distribute the offerings amongst themselves. The four categories are:-

[ 83 ] (1) Sammukhibhūta Saṃghika. Offerings to be distributed amongst the Saṃgha who are actually present at the time and place. Suppose an offering of robes is made at a certain place in towns or 'villages where some bhikkhus have gathered together, and the offering is made to the noble Saṃgha as a whole by the donor saying 'I give to the Saṃgha'. It will be difficult to reach all the noble Saṃghas in the town or the village concerned. The distribution is, therefore, to be made amongst the Saṃgha present at the place at the time. Hence it is called Sammukhibhuta Saṃghika (Sammukhibhuta- present at the time and place; Saṃghika - belonging to the Saṃgha.)

(2) Ārāmaṭṭha Saṃghika. Offerings to be distributed amongst the Saṃgha residing in the whole compound of the monastery. Suppose a donor comes into the compound of a monastery and makes an offering of robes to a bhikkhu or bhikkhus whom he meets, saying 'I give to the Saṃgha'. As the offering is made within the compound of the monastery, it belongs to all the Saṃgha residing in the whole compound of the monastery, not just to the bhikkhus who are in the vicinity. Hence it is called Ārāmaṭṭha Saṃghika (Arāmaṭṭha-residing in the compound; Saṃghika-belonging to the Saṃgha.)

(3) Gatāgata Saṃghika. Offerings which belong to the Saṃgha of whichever place they (have gone to) have been taken to. Suppose a donor comes to a monastery where a solitary bhikkhu resides and makes an offering of one hundred robes, saying 'I give to the Saṃgha'. If the residing bhikkhu is well-versed in the Disciplinary rules, he can take possession of all the offerings for himself by simply remarking, 'At the present moment, in this monastery, I am the sole Saṃgha; all these one hundred robes, therefore, belong to me and I take possession of them'. He has the right (according to the Vinaya rules) to do so; he cannot be faulted for monopolising the offering made to the Saṃgha. If the bhikkhu is not proficient in Vinaya rules, he would not know what to do. And without resolving, determining 'I am the sole owner. I take possession of them', suppose he left for another place taking the robes with him, and the bhikkhus he met there [ 84 ] should ask him how he came by the robes. Suppose, on learning how he had come by them, those bhikkhus claimed their share of the robes, saying, we also have the claim on them', and consequently all the robes were divided equally with them. Then this sharing of the robes is deemed to be a good one. But suppose, without sharing the robes, he should continue on his way and encounter other bhikkhus, these bhikkhus would also be entitled to receive their share of the robes. In this way, wherever the bhikkhu would go taking the robes with him, the bhikkhus of those places would be entitled to the robes. Hence it is called Gatāgata Sanghika: (Gatāgata-where ever one has gone; Saṃghika-belonging to the Saṃgha.)

(4) Catuddisā Saṃghika. Offerings which belong to all bhikkhus who come from the four directions. Such offerings include gifts which are weighty and important, which are to be treated with deference, for example, monasteries. They are not to be apportioned but for use by Saṃgha coming from all directions. Hence it is called catuddisa Saṃghika (Catuddissā-from four directions; Saṃghika-belonging to the Saṃgha.)

Not being mindful of the fact that these four categories are mentioned in the Vinaya rules to provide measures for distinction of ownership and distribution of the offerings made to the Saṃgha, some (bhikkhus) make use of these Vinaya provisions when lay people make offerings. To give an illustration, suppose a donor actuated by pious devotion to a certain bhikkhu builds a monastery, though not intending for him, but for the whole Saṃgha. For the libation ceremony, he invited ten bhikkhus including the bhikkhu to whom he has so much devotion. After reaitation of the Parittas³, when the time comes for actual announcement of the offer, the bhikkhu wants to be offered the monastery as a puggalika-dāna; offering made to a particular individual because he feels that living in a monastery meant for the whole Saṃgha entails so much liabilities and responsibilities. But the donor prefers to make it a [ 85 ] Sanghika-dāna because, he believes, such dāna is superior and of much merit. The congregation resolves the disagreement between the donor and his preceptor by asking the donor to make the offering saying, 'I give this monastery to the Saṃgha who is present here now' (Sammukhibhūta Saṃgha). Then nine bhikkhus of the congregation, saying to the remaining one, 'We relinquish all our right of possession of the monastery to your reverence', hand over the new monastery to him and leave.

In this manner such procedures are liable to be followed, believing that by so doing the donor's wish for a Saṃghika-dāna is fulfilled and the recipient who prefers individual ownership is also happy since the nine co-owners have relinquished their right of possession of the monastery making him the sole owner.

But in reality, such a procedure is not proper and should not be followed. The gift of a monastery is a weighty, important one; the ten bhikkhus to whom the monastery has been offered cannot make any kind of apportionment of the offering between them; and the donor's gift amounts to be only a gift to the ten bhikkhus present on the occassion only and not to the Saṃgha as a whole.

(20) Offerings to be made on specific occasions (Kāladana); offerings which may be made at any time (akāladāna). Offering of Kathina robes at the end of the Buddhist lent for the duration of one month, offering of robes at the beginning of the Buddhist Lent, offering of dietary food to the sick, offering of food to visiting bhikkhus, offering of food to bhikkhus setting out on a journey are gifts made at a specific time for a specific purpose and are called timely gifts, Kāla- dāna; all other gifts made as one wishes without reference to any particular time are called Akāla - dāna.

Kāla-dāna is of greater merit than the Akāla-type because the offering is made to meet the specific needs at a specific time. The Kāla type of dāna, at the time of its fruition, brings specific good results at the time they are needed. For example, if the donor wishes for something special to eat, his wish is immediately fulfilled; likewise if [ 86 ] he wishes to have some special clothes to wear, he will receive them. These are examples of special merit that accrues from offerings made at specific times to meet specific needs.

(21) Offerings made in the presence of the donor, (Paccakkha-dāna); Offerings made in the absence of the donor, (Apaccakkha-dāna). The Pāḷi word paccakkha is made up of pati and akkha. Pati means towards; akkha means five senses: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body. Although Paccakkha is generally 'before the eye', its complete meaning should be 'perceptible to the senses'. Thus Paccakkha-dāna has wider scope, not just the kind of offering which can be seen by the donor but also those which can be perceived by his other senses, i.e. by sound, by smell, by taste and by touch. In this connection, it should be noted that offerings made in the presence of the donor, Paccakkha-dāna is not exactly the same as sāhatthika-dāna, that made with one's own hands. Offerings made in one's presence at one's instance but not actually with one's own hands are of the Anattika-dāna type, offerings made at one's request or 'command.

(22) Offerings which can be matched by someone else (Sadisa-dāna); Offerings which cannot be matched by any one, unrivalled alms-giving, (Asadisa-dāna.) When offerings are made in a spirit of competition, donors make efforts to excel their rivals in the scale and magnificence of charity. In such competitions, the offerings that prove to be incomparable, inimitable is called unrivalled almsgiving, Asadisa - dāna.

According to the Dhammapada Commentery, as explained in the story of Unrivalled alms-giving in the Loka-vagga, only one donor appears durig the time of each Buddha to make an unrivalled offering. The story runs as follows:

At one time the Bhagavā, after going. on a long journey followed by five hundred Arahants arrived back at the Jetavana monastery. The king, Pasenadī of Kosala, honoured the Bhagavā and his five hundred disciples by inviting them to the palace and offering them alms on a magnificent [ 87 ] scale. The king invited also the people of Sāvatthi to his ceremony of offering so that they could watch and rejoice in his meritorious deed. The next day the people of Sāvatthi, rivalling the king, organized the resources of the whole city and gave offerings which surpassed those of the king's to the Bhagavā and his disciples. They invited the king to their ceremony to observe their deed and rejoice in it.

Catching the spirit of competition. the king accepted the challenge of the citizens the next day by conducting a more magnificent ceremony of offering the next day. The citizens in turn organized again another grand ceremony of offering to outdo the efforts of the king. In this manner, the keen contest between the king and his citizens went on until either side had made six offerings. (The contest still remained indecisive.)

As the seventh round came along, the royal donor was feeling despondent: "It will be very difficult to surpass the efforts of the citizens in this seventh round; and life would not be worth living, if I, the sovereign ruler of the land. were to lose to the people over whom I rule in this round''. (To console him), his queen, Mallika, thought out a plan by which the king could make a truly majestic offering which the people would find impossible to match. She had a grand pavilion built; five hundred great disciples of the Buddha, the Arahants, were to sit in the pavilion with five hundred princesses fanning them and spraying perfumes and scented water in the pavilion. At the back of the five hundred Arahants, there would be five hundred elephants, kneeling down and holding a white umbrella over each of the great Arahants.

As the arrangements were being made according to the above plan, they found one tame elephant short of five hundred; so they had a wild, unruly elephant notorious for its savagery placed at the back of the Venerable Aṅgulimala and made it hold a white umbrella like other elephants. People were amazed to find this savage beast taking part in the ceremony and holding the umbrella over the head of the Venerable Aṅgulimala in a docile manner.

[ 88 ] After the meal had been offered to the congregation. the king declared: "I made an offering of all the things in this, pavilion, allowable things as well as unallowable things. On this delaration, the people had to admit defeat in the contest, because they had no princesses, no white umbrellas, no elephants.

Thus the donor of the unrivalled dāna at the time of 'the Supreme Being of the three Worlds, the Buddha Gotama, was King Pasenadī of Kosala. It should be noted that each of the other Buddhas also had a donor who presented him with an incomparable, unrivalled dāna.

(End of the chapter on Generosity in Groups of Twos.)

[ 89 ] Type of Dāna in Groups of Threes.

(1) Dāna can also be-divided into three categories namely, Inferior (Hina), Medium (Majjhima), and Superior (Paṇita). The degree of benevolence of an act is dependent upon the strength of intention (chanda), the conscious state (citta), energy (viriya), and investigative knowledge (Vimaṃsā) involved in the act. When these four constituent elements are weak, the dāna is said to be of inferior type; when they are of medial standard the dāna is regarded as of medium type; when all are strong, the dāna is considered to be of the superior order.

(2) When the act of dāna is motivated by desire for fame and acclaim, it is of inferior type; when the goal of dāna is for attainment of happy life as a human being or a deva, .it is of medium type; if the gift is made in reverence to the Ariyas or Bodhisattas for their exemplary habits of offering, it is an excellent gift of superior order.

(In the various discourses of the Pāḷi Texts are mentioned parks and monasteries which were given the names of the individual donors, for example, Jetavana. the garden of Prince Jeta; Anāthāpiṇḍikārāma, the monastery donated by the richman Anāthapiṇḍika; Ghositārāma, the monastery donated by the rich man Ghosita. This system of nomenclature was adopted by the First Council Elders with the intention of encouraging others to follow their example and thus acquire merit. So donors today, when making such gifts, inscribe their names on marble or stone. In doing so they should keep under control, by exercise of mindfulness, any desire for fame bearing in mind that they make the gift in order to set an example to those who wish to acquire merit.)

[ 90 ] (3) When the donor aspires for happy life as a human or celestial being, his gift is of inferior type; when the aspiration is for attainment of enlightenment as a disciple (Sāvakabodhi-ñāna), or as a silent Buddha (Paccekabuddhañāṇa), the gift is a medium one; when one aspires for Perfect Self Enlightement (Sammā-sambodhi-Ñāna or Sabbaññuta Ñāna), one's gift is of superior order.

(By Bodhi or Enlightenment is meant knowledge of one of the four Paths. The sages of yore had advised that in order for the gift to serve as a means of escape from the round of rebirths (Vivaṭṭanissita), one should never make a gift in a haphazard or casual manner, one should seriously (positively) aspire for one of the three forms of Enlightenment while making an offering.)

(4) Again, gifts may be of three types, viz: Dāna-dāsa, gift fit for a servant; Dāna-sahāya, gifts fit for a friend. and dāna-sāmi, gifts fit for a master.

Just as in everyday life, one uses materials of good quality while offering the servants inferior things, so also if one makes a gift of materials which are poorer in quality than those enjoyed by oneself, the gift is of inferior type, a dāna-dasa, fit for a servant; just as in everyday life, one offers one's friends things which one uses and enjoys, so also if one makes a gift of materials which are of the same quality as used by oneself, then the gift is said to be of medium type (dāna-sahāya); just as in everyday life, one makes present of gifts to one's superior of things better in quality than those enjoyed by oneself, so also if one gives dāna of superior quality materials, then the gift is said to be of superior order, dāna-sāmi.

(5) There are three types of Dhamma-dāna (the division being based on the meaning of the word 'Dhamma' for each type). In the first type of Dhamma-dāna, 'dhamma' is the one associated with the Arnisa dhamma-dāna, mentioned above under dāna categories by Twos. Therein, it was stated that Āmisa dhamma-dāna is the gift of palm-leaf scriptures or books of the Scriptures. In this classification, the 'dhamma' is the scriptures themselves, the Pariyatti. [ 91 ] Dhamma, that was taught by the Buddha and recorded on palm leaves or books as texts.) The dhamma-dāna, therefore, means here teaching the Scriptures or giving the knowledge of the Buddha's teachings to others. The Pariyatti is the gift-object, the material that is given; the listener is the recipient and one who teaches or expounds the dhamma is the donor.

(In the second type of Dhamma-dāna, the 'dhamma' refers to the 'dhamma' included in the Abhidhammā classification of dānas into six classes, namely, rūpa-dāna' sadda-dāna, gandha-dāna, rasa-dāna, phoṭṭhabba-dāna and dhammna-dāna. The dhamma in this particular case is explained as all that forms the object of the mind or mental objects) The mental objects are: (1) the five sense organs (pasāda rūpas); (2) the sixteen subtle forms. (sukhuma rūpas; (3) the 89 states of consciousness, (citta); (4) 52 mental factors (cetasikas); (5) Nibbāna and (6) Concepts (paññatti). Whereas in Pariyatti dhamma, the 'dhamma' means 'noble'; here it has the sense of 'the truth concerning the real nature of things'.

Dhamma-dāna of this type is made through rendering assistance to those afflicted with (organic) disabilities, for example. weak eye-sight, trouble in hearing, etc., Helping others to improve their eye-sight is cakkhu (dhamma) dāna; helping them to improve their hearing is sota (dhamma) dāna, etc., The most distinctive dāna of this type is Jivita-dāna, the promotion of longevity of others. In a similar manner, the remaining dānas of the type, namely, gandha, rasa, phottabba and dhamma may be understood.

In the third type of Dhamma-dāna, the 'dhamma' refers to the Dhamma of the Triple Gem, namely. the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṃgha. As in the second type of Dhamma-dāna, the Dhamma here means the Scriptures of the teachings of the Buddha. Whereas in the second type the 'dhamma' is a gift-object for offering. while the listener is the recipient; in this third type, the Dhamma, which is a part of the trinity of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṃgha itself forms the recipient to which offerings are to [ 92 ] be made. When the Buddha and the Saṃgha become recipients the associated Dhamma also becomes a recipient of offerings.

To give an illustration: The Buddha was residing in the Jetavana monastery in Sāvatthi. At that time a rich householder who had faith in the Teaching, thought to himself thus; 'I have had opportunites to honour the Buddha and the Saṃgha constantly with offerings of food, robes, etc., But I have never honoured the Dhamma by making offerings to it. It is time now that I should do so'. With this thought, he approached the Bhagavā and asked the Bhagavā how to do about it.

The Bhagavā replied: 'If you wish to honour the Dhamma, you should give food, robes etc., to the bhikkhu who is well cultivated in the Dhamma, but with the clear intention of honouring the Dhamma which he has realized'.

When the householder asked the Bhagavā which bhikkhu would be appropriate to receive such an offering, the Buddha told him to ask the Saṃgha. The Saṃgha directed him to give his offerings to the Venerable Ānanda. So he invited the Venerable Ānanda and made a generous offering of food, robes, etc., to him, keeping in mind that he was honouring the Dhamma which the Venerable Ānanda had realized. This story is described in the introduction to the Bhikkhāparampara Jātaka, the thirteenth Jātaka of the Pakinnaka Nipāta.

According to the story, the householder is the donor, food, robes, etc., are material objects of offering, and the body of the Dhamma which lies embedded in the person of the Venerable Ānanda is the recipient of the gift.

This householder was not the only one who made such offerings at the time of the Buddha, keeping in mind the Dhamma as the recipient of offering. The Text clearly mentions that the great ruler Sīri Dhammāsoka (Asoka)with much pious reverence for the Dhamma built monasteries, 84.000 in all, one in honour of each of the 84,000 groups of Dhamma (Dhammakkhandha) which form the complete Teaching of the Buddha.

[ 93 ] (Note of Caution) ..... Many have heard of this great dāna of Asoka's and have desired to imitate him in such giving. But it is important to follow his example in a proper manner. The real motive of the great king Asoka was not merely giving of monasteries, but the paying of respect to the groups of Dhamma individually. Building of monasteries serves only to provide him with materials for offering. Later generations of donors who wish to follow the example of Sīri Dhammāsoka should understand that they build monasteries not just as objects for offering, not with the intention of acquiring the fame of being a monastery donor, but with the sole aim of paying homage to the Dhamma.

The significance of these Dhamma-dānas may be appreciated when one remembers the importance of the Teaching, the Dhamma. The great Commentator, the Venerable Mahā Buddhaghosa concluded his work Aṭṭhasālinī, the Commentary to the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, the first book of the Abhidhammā, with the wish "May the true Dhamma endure long. May all beings show reverence to the Dhamma." (Ciraṃ tiṭṭhatu saddhammo, dhamme hontu sagāravā, sabbepi sattā). He made this wish because he was fully aware of the important role of the Dhamma. He realised that as long as the Dhamma endures, the teachings of the Buddha cannot decline and everyone who honours the Dhamma will show reverence to the teachings and follow them. And the Buddha had said, "Only those who see the Dhamma, see me." And nearing the end of his life, the Buddha had said that "The Dhamma will be your teacher after I am gone". (So vo mamaccayena satthā.)

Therefore one should strive to cultivate this third type of Dhamma-dāna which plays such an important role.

(6) Another three types of dāna are classified as Dukkara-dāna, gift which is difficult to be given; Mahā-dāna, awe inspiring gift of great magnificence; and Sāmaññadāna, common forms of gifts, which are neither too difficult to make, nor too magnificent.

[ 93 ] An example of the first type, Dukkara- dāna, may be found in the story of dāna given by Dārubhaṇḍaka Tissa. This story is given in the commentary to the 28th vagga of Ekadhammajhāna, EkakaNipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya.

The story of the dāna given by Dārubhaṇḍaka.

There was a poor man who lived in Mahāgāma of Sri Lanka, and who earned his living by selling firewood. His name was Tissa, but because his livelihood was selling firewood, he was known as Dārubhaṇḍaka Tissa (Tissa who has only firewood as property).

One day he had a talk with his wife: "Our life is so humble, wretched, lowly; although the Buddha had taught the benefits of nibaddha-dāna, the observance of the duty of regular giving, we cannot afford to cultivate the practice. But we could do one thing; we could start giving almsfood regularly twice a month, and when we could afford more, we will try for the higher offering of food by tickets⁴ (salākabhatta)''. His wife was agreeable to his proposal and they started giving whatever they could afford as alms food the next morning.

That was a very prosperous time for the bhikkhus who were receiving good food in plenty. Certain young bhikkhus and sāmaneras accepted the poor alms-food offered by the Dārubhaṇḍaka's family, but threw it away in their presence. The housewife reported to her husband, "They threw away our alms-food", but she never had an unpleasant thought over the incident.

Then Dārubhaṇḍaka Tissa had a discussion with his wife. "We are so poor we cannot offer alms-food that would please the Noble Ones. What should we do to satisfy them". "Those who have children are not poor", said his wife in order to give him solace and encouragement and advised him to hire out the services of their daughter to a household, and with the money so acquired, to buy a milch cow. Dārubhaṇḍaka accepted his wife's advice; he obtained twelve pieces of money with which he bought a [ 95 ] cow. Because of the purity of their wholesome volition, the cow yielded large quantities of milk.

The milk they got in the evening was made into cheese and butter. The milk they got in the morning was used by the wife in the preparation of milk porridge which together with the cheese and butter, they offered to the Saṃgha. In this manner, they were able to make offerings of alms food which was well accepted by the Saṃgha. From that time onwards the salākabhatta of Dārubhaṇḍaka was available only to the Noble Ones of high attainments.

One day Dārubhaṇḍaka said to his wife, "Thanks to our daugther we are saved from humiliation. We have reached a position in which the Noble Ones accepted our alms food with great satisfaction. Now, do not miss out on the regular duty of offering alms food during my absence. I shall find some kind of employment; I shall come back after redeeming our daughter from her bondage." Then he went to work for six months in a sugar mill where he managed to save up twelve pieces of money with which to redeem his daughter.

Setting out for home early one morning, he saw ahead of him the Venerable Tissa on his way to worship at the Pagoda at Mahāgāma. This bhikkhu was one who cultivated the austere practice of piṇḍindapāta, that is,he partakes only of alms food offered him when going on alms round. Dārubhaṇḍaka walked fast to catch up with the bhikkhu and strolled along with him, listening to his talk of the Dhamma. Approaching a village, Dārubhaṇḍaka saw a man coming out with a packet of cooked rice in his hand. He offered the man one piece of money to sell him the packet of meal.

The man realising that there must be some special reason for offering one piece of money for the food packet when it was not worth the sixteenth part of it, refused to sell it for one piece of money. Dārubhaṇḍaka increased his offer to two, then three pieces of money and so on until he had offered all the money he possessed, But the man still declined the offer (thinking Dārubhaṇḍaka had still more money with him.)

[ 96 ] Finally, Dārubhaṇḍaka explained to the man, "I have no money with me other than these twelve pieces. I would have given you more if I had. I am buying this meal packet not for myself; wishing to offer alms food, I have requested a bhikkhu to wait for me under the shade of that tree. The food is to be offered to that bhikkhu. Do sell me the packet of food for this twelve pieces of money. You will also gain merit by doing so.''

The man finally agreed to sell his food packet and Dārubhaṇḍaka took it with great happiness to the waiting bhikkhu. Taking the bowl from the bhikkhu, Dārubhanṇḍaka put the cooked rice from the packet into it. But the Venerable Thera accepted only half of the meal. Dārubhaṇḍaka made an earnest request to the bhikkhu: "Venerable Sir, this meal is sufficient for only one person. I will not eat any of it. I bought the food intending it only for you. Out of compassion for me, may the Venerable One accept all the food." Upon this, the Venerable Thera permitted him to offer all the food in the packet.

After the Thera had finished the meal, they continued the journey together and the bhikkhu asked Dārubhaṇḍaka about himself. Dārubhaṇḍaka told everything about himself very frankly to the bhikkhu. The Thera was struck with awe by the intense piety of Dārubhaṇḍaka and he thought to himself: "This man has made a dukkara-dāna, an offering which is difficult to make. Having partaken of the meal offered by him, under difficult circumstances, I am greatly indebted to him and I should show my gratitude in return. If I can find a suitable place, I shall strive hard to attain Arahantship in one sitting. Let all my skin, flesh and blood dry up. I will not stir from this position until I attain the goal". As they reached Mahāgāma, they went on their separate ways.

On arriving at the Tissa Mahāvihāra Monastery, the Thera was alloted a room for himself, where he made his great effort, determined not to stir from the place until he had eradicated all defilements and become an Arahant. Not even getting up to go on the alms round, he steadfastly worked on until at the dawn of the seventh day, he became [ 97 ] an Arahant fully accomplished in the four branches of Analytical Knowledge (Patisambhidā). Then he thought to himself thus: "My body is greatly enfeebled. I wonder weather I could live longer". He realised through exercise of his psychic powers that the phenomenon of nāma rūpa which constituted his living body would not continue much longer. Putting everything in order in his dwelling place and taking his bowl and great robes he went to the Assembly Hall at the center of the monastery and sounded the drum to assemble all the bhikkhus.

When all the bhikkhus had gathered together, the head Thera enquired who had called for the assembly. The Venerable Tissa who had cultivated the austere practice of taking only alms food, replied, "I have sounded the drum, Venerable Sir'.' "And why have you done so?" I have no other purpose, but if any member of the Saṃgha has doubts about the attainments of the Path and Fruition, I wish them to ask me about them".

The head Thera told him there were no questions. He then asked the Venerable Tissa why he had persevered so arduously sacrificing even his life for the attainment. He related all that had happened and informed him that he would pass away the same day. Then he said, "May the catafalque on which my corpse would be supported remain immoveable until my alms-food donor, Dārubhaṇḍaka, comes and lifts it with his own hands". And he passed away that very day.

Then King Kākavaṇṇatissa came and ordered his men to put the body on the catafalque and take it to the funeral pyre at the cremating grounds, but they were not able to move it. Finding out the reason for this, the king sent for Dārubhaṇḍaka, had him dressed in fine clothes and asked him to lift up the catafalque.

The text gives an elaborate account of how Dārubhaṇḍaka lifted up the catafalque with the body on it easily over his head and how, as he did so, the catafalque rose in the air and travelled by itself to the funeral pyre.

[ 98 ] Dārubhaṇḍaka's dāna involving the sacrifice ungrudgingly of twelve pieces of money which were needed for redeeming his own daughter from servitude and which had taken six whole months to earn is indeed a very difficult one to give and thus is known as Dukkara-dāna.

Another example of such gifts is found in the story of Sukha Sāmaṇera given in the tenth vagga of the Commentary to the Dhammapada. Before he became a sāmanera, he was a poor villager who wanted to eat the sumptious meal of a rich man. The rich man Gandha told him that he would have to work for three years to earn such a meal. Accordingly he worked for three years and obtained the meal he so earnestly longed for; when he was about to enjoy it a Paccekabuddha happened to come by. Without any hesitation, he offered the Paccekabuddha the meal which he had so cherished and which had taken him three years to earn.

Another example is provided by the Ummādantī Jātaka of Paññāsa Nipāta which gives the story of a poor girl who worked for three years to get the printed clothes she wanted to adorn herself. When she was about to dress herself in the clothes she had so yearned for, a disciple of the Buddha Kassapa came by (who was covered only with leaves because he had been robbed of his robes by the dacoits). The giving away of clothes which she so cherished and for which she had to work for three years is also a Dukkara type of dāna.

Awe-inspiring gifts of great magnificence are called Mahā Dāna, The great Siridhammāsoka's (Asoka's) gifts of 84,000 monasteries in honour of 84,000 passages of the Pitaka are great dānas of this type. On this account the Venerable Mahāmoggaliputta Tissa said, "In the Dispensation of the Buddha, or even in the life time of the Buddha, there is no one equal to you as a donor of the four requisites. Your offering is the greatest."

Although the Venerable Mahāmoggaliputta Tissa said so, the gifts of Asoka were made on his own initiative without any one to compete and therefore, there is no need to [ 99 ] classify them as Sadisa or Asadisa type of dāna. Passenadī Kosala's gifts were made in competition with those of the citizens (of Sāvatthi ) and are therefore termed 'Asadisa Dāna', the Matchless gift.

All other gifts of ordinary nature which are neither difficult to make nor of great magnitude are just common gifts, Sāmañña dāna.

In addition to these, there is another classification of three Dhamma dānas described in the Vinaya Parivāra Texts and its commentary, viz:

1. Giving to the Saṃgha gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the Saṃgha,
2. Giving to the Pagoda gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the Pagoda, and
3. Giving to the individual gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the individual.

These are called Dhammika-dāna, gifts offered in connection with the Dhamma. (Further details of these types of gifts will be found below in accordance with the nine gifts of Adhammika-dāna.

Type of Dāna in Groups of Fours.

The texts do not mention any type of gifts by fours. But Vinaya lists four kinds of requisites which may be offered as gifts. They are:

1. Gift of robe or robe-materials (Cīvara-dāna),
2. Gift of alms food (Piṇḍapāta-dāna),
3. Gift of dwelling places (Senāsana dāna),
4. Gift of medicinal materials (Bhesajja dāna).

Gifts may also be classified into four types depending on the purity of the donor and the receiver, viz:

(1) Dāna where the donor has morality but the recipient has not.
[ 100 ] (2) Dāna where the recipient has morality but the donor has not,
(3) Dāna where both the donor and the recipient are immoral, and
(4) Dāna where both the recipient and the donor have morality.

Type of Dāna in Groups of Fives.

The Kāladāna sutta in the Sumanā Vagga, Pañcaka Nipāta, Anguttara Nikāya mentions the following five types of gifts which are to be given at an appropriate time:

(1) Gift made to a visitor,
(2) Gift made to one starting on a journey,
(3) Gift made to one who is ill,
(4) Gift made at the time of scarcity,and
(5) Gift of newly harvested grains and crops made to those endowed with virtue.

The fifth type has direct reference to farmers and cultivators, but it should be understood that it also includes the first fruits of labour of any one who offers them as dāna before using them for oneself.

Five kinds of Asappurisa dāna.

There are five kinds of gifts made by men of no virtue:

(1) Dāna made without seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean;
(2) Dāna made without due reverence or considerations;
[ 101 ] (3) Dāna made without offering it with one's own hands; (For example, the dāna of King Pāyāsi⁵ who instead of presenting the gifts with his own hands had his attendant Uttara do so for him.)
(4) Dāna made in the manner of discarding one's leftovers; and
(5) Dāna made without the knowledge that the good deed done now will surely, bring good results in the future (Kammassakatā Ñāna).

Five kinds of sappurisa dāna.

There are five kinds of gifts made by men of virtue:

(1) Dāna made after seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly perpared, fresh, wholesome and clean;
(2) Dāna made with due reverence with the mind firmly placed on the material for offering;
(3) Dāna made with one's own hands; (Throughout the beginningless cycle of existences, the beginning of which we have no knowledge, there have been many existences in which one is not equipped with hands and feet. In this existence when one has the rare fortune of being equipped with complete limbs, one should avail oneself of this rare opportunity of offering gifts with one's own hands reflecting that one would work for liberation making use of the hands one is fortunate enough to be born with);
(4) Dāna made with due care, and not as if one is discarding one's own leftovers; and
[ 102 ] (5) Dāna made with the knowledge that the good deed done now will surely bring good results in the future.

These two groups of five kinds of gifts are described in the seventh sutta of the Tikanda Vagga. Pañcaka Nipāta, Anguttara Nikaya.)

Another five kinds of gifts made by men of virtue (Sappurisa Dāna).

(1) Dāna made with faith in the law of cause and effect (Saddhā-dāna);
(2) Dāna made after seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared fresh, wholesome and clean (Sakkacca-Dāna);
(3) Dāna made at the right time, on the proper occassion (Kāla-dāna). (When it is the meal-time alms food is offered; when it is the Kathina season, robes are offered);
(4) Dāna made with a view to rendering assistance to the recipient or to show kindness to him (Anuggahadāna); and
(5) Dāna made without affecting in any way one's dignity and the dignity of others (Anupaghāta-dāna).

All of these five kinds of gifts give rise to great wealth, riches and prosperity. In addition, saddha-dāna results in fair, handsome appearance. As a result of Sakkacca-dāna, one's followers and attendants are attentive and obedient. Resulting from Kāla-dāna are benefits that come at the right time and in abundance. As a result of Anuggahadāna, one is well disposed to enjoy the fruits of one's good deeds and is able to do so in full. As a result of Anupaghāta-dāna, one's property is fully protected against the five destructive elements (water, fire, king, thieves and opponents. This classification of five kinds of Dāna comes in the eighth sutta of the above Text).

The opposites of these five kinds of Dāna are not mentioned in the Texts; but it may be assumed that the five [ 103 ] corresponding dānas made by men of no virtues would be as follows:

(1) Dāna made without believing in the law of cause and effect (Asaddhiya-dāna), just to imitate others' dāna or to escape from being censured or reviled. (Such dānas will produce wealth and riches for the donor, but he will not be bestowed with fine appearance.)
(2) Dāna made without seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean (Asakacca-dāna). (Wealth and riches will accrue from such dānas, but the donor will not receive obedience and discipline from his sub-ordinates.)
(3) Dāna made at inappropriate time (Akāla-dāna). (It will produce wealth but its benefical results will not be in great abundance and will not come at the time needed.)
(4) Dāna made perfunctorily (Ananuggaha-dāna) without intention of assisting or doing honour to the recipient. (One may reap riches and wealth out of such deeds, but he will not be disposed to enjoy his wealth or he may be denied the occasion to enjoy them.)
(5) Dāna made in such a way that it will affect in some way one's dignity or the dignity of others (Upaghātadāna). (Wealth and riches may accrue from such dānas but they will be subject to damage or destruction by the five enemies.)

In view of the Kāla-dāna and Akāla-dāna types of offering mentioned above i.e. offerings made at appropriate or inappropriate times, is should be well noted that it is improper to make offerings, even with the best of intentions, of light to the Buddha during the day when there is light, or of food when it is after noon.

Five kinds of Immoral gifts.

The Parivāra (Vinaya Pitaka) mentions five kinds of giving which are commonly and conventionally called by people [ 104 ] as acts of merit, but which are nothing but harmful, demeritorious forms of offering.

They are

(1) Gift of intoxicants, majja-dāna:
(2) Holding of festivals, samajja-dāna.
(3) Provision of prostitutes for sexual enjoyment of those who wish to do so, Itthi-dāna:
(4) Dispatch of bulls into a herd of cows for mating (Usabha-dāna) and
(5) Drawing and offering of pornographic pictures (Cittakamma-dāna).

The Buddha described these forms of offering as immoral, demeritorious gifts because they cannot be accompanied by good intentions, wholesome volitions. Some people think that by providing opium to an addicted person, who is nearing death because of the withdrawal of the drug, they are doing a meritorious deed of lifegiving (Jīvita-dāna). As a matter of fact, this does not constitute an act of merit, because it is unwholesome consciousness that motivates one to offer opium which is not suitable for consumption. The same consideration holds good in the case of offering of intoxicants.

The Commentary to the Jātaka mentions the inclusion of intoxicating drinks in the display of material to be given away by the Bodhisatta King Vessantara as a great offering, Mahā - Dāna.

Some people try to explain away this inclusion of intoxicants as materials for offering by the King Vessantara by saying that the king had no intention of providing liquor to the drunkards; that it is only the volition that determines the merits of an offering; that King Vessantara did not want any one to drink the intoxicants; there is no wrong intention involved. He merely wanted to avoid being criticised by those who would say that the king's Great-Dāna' has no offerings of intoxicants.

(But such rationalization is untenable.) Great persons like King Vessantara do not worry about criticism levelled [ 105 ] at them by others, especially when the criticism is unjustitied. The fact of the matter is that it is only in drinking that the guilt lies; using it as a lotion or for medicinal preparations in a proper manner is not demeritorious. We should take it, therefore, that it is for such purposes that the King Vessantara included intoxicants as materials for offering in his Great-Dāna.

Five Kinds of 'Great Gifts', Mahā-Dāna.

In the ninth Sutta of the fourth Vagga of the Aṭṭhaka Nipāta, Aṅguttara Nikāya are given comprehensive expositions of the Five Precepts beginning with the words "Pañcimāni bhikkhave dānāni mahādānāni," describing the Five Precepts as the Five Kinds of Great Gifts 'Mahā-Dāna'. But it should not be wrongly understood that Sīla is Dāna just because the Five Precepts are described as the Five Great Dānas in the Text mentioned above. The Buddha does not mean to say that Sīla is not different from dāna or the two are exactly the same. Sīla is proper restraint of one's physical and verbal actions and dāna is offering of a gift, and the two should not be taken as identical.

When a virtuous person observes the precept of nonkilling and abstains from taking life of other beings, that moral person is actually giving them the gift of harmlessness (Abhaya-dāna). The same consideration applies to the remaining precepts. Thus when all the Five Precepts are well observed by a moral person, he is, by his restraint, offering all beings gifts of freedom from harm, from danger, from worries, from anxiety, etc., It is in this sense that the Buddha teaches here that observance of the Five precepts constitutes offering of the Five Great gifts, Mahā-Dāna.

End of Types of Dāna in Groups of Fives.

Types of Dāna in groups of Sixes.

Just as the Texts do not mention any list of gifts in groups of Fours as such, so there is no direct mention of types of gifts in groups of six in the Texts. But the Aṭṭtthasālinā, [ 106 ] the Commentary to Dhammasaṅganī, the first volume of Abhidhammā, gives an exposition of six types of gifts in which the six sense-objects provide materials for offerings viz: the gift of colour, of sound, of odour, of taste, of objects of touch, and of mind-objects.

Types of dāna in groups of Sevens.

Similarly, there is no mention of types of dāna in groups of sevens as such; but the seven kinds of Saṃghika dāna, described above under the heading 'Types of gifts in pairs', sub-heading 'Gifts to the Saṃgha' may be taken to represent this type of dāna.

Types of dāna in groups of Eights.

The Buddha teaches the group of eight dānas in the first Sutta of the Fourth Vagga, Aṭṭhaka Nipāta, Aṅguttara Nikāya. (1) The Eight dānas are:

(a) Dāna made without delay, without hesitation, as soon as the recipient arrives;
(b) Dāna made through fear of censure or of being reborn in the realms of misery and suffering;
(c) Dāna made because the recipient had in the past given him gifts;
(d) Dāna made with the intention that the recipient of the offering will make a return offering in future;
(e) Dāna made with the thought that making a gift is a good deed;
(f) Dāna made with the thought 'I am a householder who prepares and cooks food to eat; it would not be proper if I partake of the food without making offerings to those who are not allowed (by their disciplinary rules, i.e. Buddhist monks) to prepare and cook their own food?'
(g) Dāna made with the thought 'The gift I am offering will bring me a good reputation which will spread far and wide, and
[ 107 ] (h) Dāna made with the idea that it will serve as an instrument to help one attain concentration when one fails to achieve it while practising Concentration and Insight Meditation.

Of the eight kinds of dāna, the last one is the best, the noblest. The reason is that this last dāna is unique, one which promotes joy and delight in one who is practising Concentration and Insight meditation, and renders great assistance to his endearours in meditation. The first seven modes of giving do not arouse and encourage the mind in the work of Concentration and Insight Meditation and of them, the first and the fifth are superior ones (Panīta). The seventh type is an inferior one (hīna), while numbers 2, 3, 4, 6 are of medium status.

The eight categories of dāna may be divided into two groups: Puññavisaya-dāna, dāna which belongs to the sphere of meritorious giving and Lokavisaya-dāna, dāna which belongs to the sphere of worldly gifts. The first, the fifth and the eighth are Puññavisaya- dānas and the remaining five belong to the Lokavisaya type.

(2) Again, the third sutta in the Dāna Vagga of Aṭṭhaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya provides another list of eight dāna.

(a) Dāna made out of affection,
(b) Dāna made under unavoidable circumstances, made reluctantly and showing resentment,
(c) Dāna made through bewilderment and foolishness without understanding the law of cause and effect,
(d) Dāna made through fear of censure, through fear of rebirth in the realms of misery and suffering, through fear of harm that may be caused by the recipient,
(e) Dāna made with the thought 'It has been the tradition of generations of my ancestors and I should carry on the tradition',
(f) Dāna made with the objective of gaining rebirth in the Deva realms,
[ 108 ] (g) Dāna made with the hope of experiencing joy and delight with a pure mind, and
(h) Dāna made with the idea that it will serve as an instrument to help one attain concentration when one fails to achieve it while practising Concentration and Insight Meditation.

Of these eight categories of dāna also, only the eighth kind is the noblest; the sixth and the seventh are Punnavisaya type of dāna and are quite meritorious. The remaining five are of inferior type belonging to the Lokavisaya types.

(3) Again, in the fifth sutta of the Dāna Vagga Aṭṭhaka Nipāta, Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha had taught comprehensively on the subject of gaining rebirths as a result of giving alms, Danupapatti. According to the eight kinds of destination to be gained as future births, the dānas are divided into eight categories:

(a) Seeing the happy circumstance of rich and prosperous people in this life one makes the dāna wishing for such wealth and comfortable life in the future, at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, his wish is fulfilled; he gains rebirth in the human world in happy, comfortable, wealthy circumstances.
(b) Hearing that the Catumahārājika Devas are powerful beings leading a life of comfort and pleasures, one makes the dāna wishing for such powerful, comfortable life full of pleasures in the Catumahārājika Deva world, at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, his wish is fulfilled; he is reborn in the Catumahārājika Deva world.
(c) Hearing that the Tāvatiṃsā Devas are in the Tāvatiṃsā Deva world.
(d) Hearing that the Yāmā Devas are ................ in the Yāmā deva world.
(e) Hearing that the Tusita Devas are ................ in the Tusitā Deva world.
[ 109 ] (f) Hearing that the Nimmānarati Devas. ................
(g) Hearing that the Paranimmitavasavattī Devas are ................ in the Paranimmitavasavattī Deva world.
(h) Hearing that the Brahmas live a long life, having beautiful appearance and enjoying happy, blissful lives, one makes the dāna wishing to be reborn in the Brahma world and at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, one gains rebirth in the Brahma world as one has wished.

It should not be concluded from the above statement that giving of alms alone is a sure guarantee for a happy life in the Brahma world. As stated under the eighth type, in the above two categories, it is only by making the mind soft and gentle through offering of alms and through development of concentration up to the Absorption stage, Jhāna, by practising meditation on the four illimitables, namely, Loving Kindness (Mettā), Compassion (Karunā), Sympathetic Joy (Muditā) and Equanimity (Upekkhā) that one can gain rebirth in the Brahma world.

Again in the seventh Sutta of the same Dāna Vagga is given the following list of eight dānas given by a moral person (Sappurisa-dāna):

(a) Giving of gifts which have been made clean, pure and attractive;
(b) Giving of gifts of choice materials and of excellent quality;
(c) Giving of gifts at proper and appropriate times;
(d) Giving of gifts which are suitable for and acceptable by the recipient;
(e) Giving of gifts after making careful selection of the recipient and the objects to be offered (Viceyyadāna); excluding persons of immoral conduct, the selected recipients should be moral persons who follow the Teachings of the Buddha; as to the materials to be offered, when possessing things of both good and bad quality, better quality materials should be selected for making a gift;
[ 110 ] (f) Giving of gifts according to one's ability in a constant manner;
(g) Giving of gifts with a pure, calm mind;
(h) Giving of gifts and feeling glad after having done so.

A separate list of eight types of gifts made by persons of immoral conduct (Assappurisa-dāna) is not given as such in the Texts, but one could surmise that they would be as follows:

(a) Giving of gifts which are unclean, impure and unattractive,
(b) Giving of gifts of inferior quality,
(c) Giving of gifts at improper and inappropriate times,
(d) Giving of gifts which are unsuitable for the recipient,
(e) Giving of gifts without making careful selection of the recipient and the objects to be offered,
(f) Giving of gifts only occasionally although one is capable of doing so in a constant manner,
(g) Giving of gifts without calming the mind, and
(h) Giving of gifts feeling remorse after having done so.

End of Types of dāna by Groups of Eights.

TYPES OF DĀNA BY GROUPS OF NINES.

The Vinaya Parivāra Pāḷi Text mentions the Nine types of giving which are taught by the Buddha as not valid as a deed of offering (Adhammika-dāna). The Commentary on the Text explains these nine types of gifts as follows:

(1) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain group of the Saṃgha to be given to another group of the Saṃgha,
(2) or to be given to a shrine,
(3) or to be given to an individual,
[ 111 ] (4) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain shrine to be given to another shrine,
(5) or to be given to the Saṃgha,
(6) or to be given to an individual,
(7) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain individual to be given to another individual.
(8) or to be given to the Saṃgha, and
(9) or to be given to a shrine.

Here the gift which has been intended by the donor means the four requisites of robes. food. dwelling place and medicines and other small items of necessities which the donor has already committed verbally to give to the Saṃgha, or a shrine, or an individual.

The story of why the Buddha taught these nine types of Adhammika - dāna is given in the Pārajika kaṇḍa and Pācittiya Pāḷi Texts of the Vinaya Piṭaka. Once the Bhagavā was residing at the Jetavana Monastery in Sāvatthi. Then a certain group of people decided to make offerings of food and robes to the Saṃgha. Accordingly they made necessary preparations and had the robes and food ready prepared for the offering. A group of immoral bhikkhus went to the would-be donors and forcibly urged them to make the offering of robes to them instead. Being thus forced to give away the robes to the immoral bhikkhus, the people had only food left to offer to the Saṃgha. Hearing of this, the modest bhikkhus denounced the immoral bhikkhus and reported what had happened to the Bhagavā. It was then that the Bhagavā laid down the rule: whoever bhikkhu should knowingly appropriate for himself the gift which has been declared to be intended for the Saṃgha, there is an offence of expiation involving forfeiture Nissaggiya Pācittiya Āpatti.

[ 112 ] In the explication that accompanies the rule, the Buddha explains: If the gift already committed by word of mouth to be given to the Saṃgha is appropriated for oneself, there is the offence of expiation involving forfeiture (Nissaggiya Pācittiya Āpatti); if it is caused to be given to the Saṃgha other than the intended one or to a shrine, there is an offence of Dukkata Āpatti. Knowing the gift is intended for a certain shrine, if it is made to be given to another shrine or to the Saṃgha or to an individual, there is an offence of Dukkaṭa Āpatti. Knowing the gift is intended to be given to a certain individual, if it is caused to be given to another individual, or to the Saṃgha, or to a shrine, there is an offence of Dukkata Āpatti.

The above story is given to illustrate how one's well intentioned deed of merit could become vitiated through intervention and interference of undesirable intermediaries and how due to their intervention it could be turned into an adhammika-dāna. The Buddha also explained the nine unrighteous acceptances (adhammika paṭiggaha) of the nine adhammika-dāna and the nine righteous uses (adhammika paribhoga) of righteously offered requisites.

It should be noted, however, that not every transfer of gifts from the recipient originally intended by the donor to another results in an adhammika-dāna. The donor himself may change his original intention for some good reason or may be persuaded by a well-wisher to transfer the gift for acquiring more merit.

An illustration of such transfer of gifts is found in the story of Mahā Pajāpati who had made a new robe intending it to be offered to the Buddha. The Buddha advised her to offer the robe to the Saṃgha instead. If it were an offence, the Buddha would not have given the advice. As a matter of fact, the Buddha knew that Mahā Pajāpati would gain much greater merit by offering the robe to the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha himself.

[ 113 ] In another instance, the Buddha persuaded King Pasenadī of Kosala to change his mind about permitting a monastery for ascetics of another faith to be built close by the Jetavana monastery. The king had been bribed by the ascetics for granting land to build their monastery. Foreseeing endless disputes that would later arise, the Buddha first sent the Venerable Ānanda and other bhikkhus and later the two Chief Disciples, the Venerable Sāriputta and the Venerable Mahā Moggalāna, to dissuade the king from taking the bribe and granting the land to the ascetics. The king gave some excuse to avoid seeing the great Disciples. Consequently the Buddha himself had to go to the king and told him the story of King Bharu, mentioned in the Duka Nipāta, who in a similar situation had caused much suffering through taking bribes. Fully convinced of his wrong doing, King Passenadī made amends by withdrawing the grant of land and appropriating the building materials gathered on it by the ascetics. The king then had a monastery built with those materials on the very site and donated it to the Buddha.

As stated above there is no offence when a donor changes his first intention for a good reason and makes the offer to another person. This has direct reference to one of the attributes of the Ariya Saṃgha. If a donor prepares gifts for bhikkhus who would be visiting him, and if in the meantime, bhikkhus who are well-established in the higher Dhammas and who are members of the Ariya Saṃgha come upon the scene, he may change his mind and offer the gifts to the newcomers to his better advantage. And they may also accept such gifts. They may also make use of the gifts so received. Being worthy of accepting such gifts originally intended for visitors is known as the Pāhuneyya attribute of the Ariya Saṃgha.

End of Types of Dāna in Groups of Nines.

[ 114 ]Type of dāna in Groups of Tens and Fourteens.

As in the case of dāna in Groups of Fours, Sixes, or Sevens there is no direct mention of type of dāna in groups of Tens in the Texts. But the Commentaries provide a list of ten material things which may be offered as dāna.

Likewise the Dakkhina Vibhaṅga Sutta gives a list of dānas which come under the category of fourteen kinds of gifts by individuals (see item 19 of types of dāna in groups of Twos).

End of Chapter on types of Dāna.

5. WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS THAT STRENGTHEN THE BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF DĀNA?

6. WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS THAT WEAKEN THE BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF DĀNA?

The Dāna Sutta, the seventh discourse of the Devatā Vagga, in the Chakka Nipāta, Aṅguttara Nikāya, explains the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of dāna and those that weaken them. At one time, the Bhagavā was residing at the Jetavana Monastery in Sāvatthi. At that time, he saw by the exercise of supernormal psychic power of divine sight that a certain female follower of the Teaching by the name of Nandamātā, was making an offering to the two Chief Disciples and the Saṃgha in the distant town of Velukandaki. He said to the bhikkhus "Bhikkhus, Nandamātā of Velukandaki is right now making a great offering to the Saṃgha headed by Venerables Sāriputta and Moggalāna. Her offering has the distinguished feature of the donor possessing three special qualities of volitional purity, namely, (a) feeling happy before the act of offering; (b) having a clear, pure mind while making the offering and (c) rejoicing after having made the offering, and of the recipients possessing three special qualities of mental purity, namely; (a) being free of attachment (rāga) or practising to be liberated from it; (b) being free of illwill (dosa) or practising to be liberated from it, (c) being free of bewilderment (moha) or practising to be liberated from it.

[ 115 ] "Bhikkhus, just as the water in the ocean is immeasurable, the benefit that will accrue from an offering distinguished by those six features is also immeasurable. As a matter of fact you speak of the water in the ocean as an immeasurably huge mass of water; likewise you say of such an offering which is unique with these six features as one that will bring an immeasurably huge accumulation of merit. ',

According to this Pāḷi Text, it may be seen that the three qualities possessed by the donor and three qualities possessed by the recipients form the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of Dāna. It follows from it that, to the extent that the donor and the recipients are lacking in their respective qualities to that extent will the act of dāna fall short of the full possible beneficial results.

Again in the ninth birth story of Mahādhammapāla, in the Dasaka Nipāta of the Jātaka it is mentioned that King Suddhodana was a brahmin in a past life. The great teacher of the Texila to whom he had entrusted his son for education asked him why members of his clan did not die young but lived to a ripe, old age.

He replied in verse:

Pubbeva dānā sumanā bhavāma
dadampi ve attamanā bhavāma
datvāpi ve nānutappāma
pacchā tasmā hi amham dahara na mīyare.

We feel very happy before we ever make an offering, We are delighted and satisfied while making the offering; And we rejoice after having made the the offering, never feeling remorseful. For these three reasons people never die young in our clan.

From this story one can surmise that when an offering is made with fulfilment of these three volitional conditions, the benefit that accrues from it is enjoyment of long life in the present existence.

[ 116 ] Again in the Atthasālinī and the Dhammapada Commentary are mentioned four conditions that bring beneficial results in the present life from an act of offering:.

(a) The materials to be offered as gifts have been acquired legitimately and equitably (Paccayānam dhammikata).
(b) They are given with faith and confidence and with fulfilment of three volitional conditions. (Cetanāmahattā).
(c) The recipient is one of high attainment, an Arahant or an Anāgāmin (Vatthusampatti).
(d) The recipient has just arisen from the unconditioned state, Nirodhasamapatti (Gunatirekata).

Offerings of this kind which bring beneficial results in the present life were made by people such as Puṇṇa, Kākavaliya and the flower girl Sumanā who reaped great benefits from their dānas which met these four conditions completely.

In the Attahasālinī, these four conditions for a gift are termed the four purities of gifts (Dakkhinā visudhi); in the Dhammapada Commentary, they are called 'the Four accomplishments (Sampadā).

Again, there is a list of four kinds of purity (Dakkhina visuddhi) connected with an act of dāna given in the Dakkhinā Vibhaṅga Sutta of the Uparipannasa Pāḷi. They are:

(a) A gift made pure by the donor but not by the recipient. (Even if the recipient is of no moral virtue (dussīla), if the donor is virtuous and makes an offering of what has been acquired legitimately and equitably, with pure and good volition before, during and after giving the dāna and does it with full faith in the law of cause and effect, then the dāna is pure because of the donor and will bring great benefit.)
(b) A gift made pure by the recipient but not by the donor. (Even if the donor is of no moral virtue, and makes an offering of what has been acquired [ 117 ] illegitimately and unequitably, and does not have pure, good volition before, during and after giving the dāna, and without faith in the law of cause and effect, if the recipient is morally virtuous, then the dāna is pure because of the recipient and will bring great benefits.)
(c) A gift not made pure either by the donor or the recipient. (When the donor of no moral virtue makes an offering of ill-gotten wealth to an immoral recipient with no pure, good volition before, during and after the act of offering and without faith in the law of cause and effect, the dāna will bring no great beneficial result, just as a poor seed planted on poor soil will not grow properly to produce good crops.)
(d) A gift made pure both by the donor and the recipient. (When the donor of moral virtue makes an offering of what has been acquired legitimately and equitably, with pure and good volition before, during and after the act of offering to a morally virtuous recipient, the dāna will bring great beneficial result, just as a good seed planted in good soil produces good crops.)

The third type, of course, is not concerned with purity at all, but it is mentioned to include all the cases involved. To summarise all that we have considered, there are five elements that strengthen the beneficial results of dāna:

(1) The donor observes the precepts and is of good moral conduct,
(2) The recipient is also morally virtuous,
(3) The materials offered have been acquired justly and rightly,
(4) The offering is made with happiness before with pure satisfaction and delight during and with rejoicing after making the offer,
(5) The donor has complete faith in the law of cause and effect,

[ 118 ] These five elements should accompany the dāna to be of greatest purity and benefit; when they are lacking when offerings are made, to that extent will the dāna be deficient in beneficial results.

Some remarks on 'Saddhā'.

It is important to understand clearly the complete meaning of the fifth element, namely, 'faith in the law of cause and effect'. Here, faith is the rendering into Myanma of the Pāḷi word 'saddbā'. Grammatically it would mean 'that which holds and keeps well'.

Just as clear water in which all sediment and impurities have settled down to the bottom 'can hold the image of the moon, of the sun and keep it well, so also faith which is devoid of mental difilements can firmly hold the virtues and attributes of the Buddha (to serve as object for contemplation).

To give another illustration, if man is not equipped with hands, he would not be able to help himself to jewels lying about him although he sees them. If he does not possess wealth he would not be able to provide himself with a variety of goods and materials.

Without seeds, there would be no crops nor grains. Similarly, without faith we cannot acquire the jewels of generosity, morality and development of concentration and insight; (and there can be no enjoyment of the pleasures of the human or Deva world or the bliss of Nibbāna). Hence the Buddha in his teaching compared faith to possessing hands, wealth or seeds.

In the Milindapañha Pāḷi and Atthasālinī Commentary, faith is compared to the crown jewel ruby, of a Universal Monarch, which has the property of instantly purifying and clearing the water in which it is put, no matter how dirty the water is. In a similar manner, faith dispels instantly all that is defiling the mind and make it pure and clear at once. If the mind is filled with faith, there is no room in it for defilements such as grief, worry etc.

[ 119 ] How difficult it is to keep the mind steadfastly contemplating on the attributes of the Buddha is within the experience of all good Buddhists. In other words, it is not a simple matter to keep the mind filled with only faith devoid of all defilements. But with practice, one can maintain a pure, clear mind through faith for short periods, until with steadfast effort, one can do so continuously for long periods.

As regards having faith in the law of cause and effect, mentioned above, we should reflect thus: ' I will have spent a certain amount of my wealth by offering this dāna but it will not be spent in vain. Through this act of dāna, I will have developed volitions which is much more precious than the wealth I will have spent. My wealth is liable to be destroyed by five kinds of enemies, but this mental action of volition is indestructible and will follow me through rounds of existence till I attain Nibbāna. Ability to keep the mind clear and pure in this manner is having faith in the law of cause, the mental action of volition.

And considering the results that would accrue from the mental action we will come to a very clear, definite conclusion: 'Because of this mental action of volition, I will reap beneficial results throughout the rounds of existence, there is no doubt about it'. Reflecting thus and experiencing the exhilarating purity of the mind is having faith in the law of effect.

Thus it is important to develop, through reflecting on the law of cause or the law of effect, faith which is conducive to purity of mind, for it is the fifth element that strengthens the beneficial results of Dāna.

End of Chapter on Generosity.

The Prefection of Morality (Sīḷa Pāramī) The Game Animal Cāmarī.

[ 120 ] The author gives an elaborate description of the animal cāmarī which we have translated 'yak'. He quotes various authorities to dispel the notion of many people that cāmarī is a kind of winged animal. Far from it, the author says on the authority of Abhayarama Sayadaw of Mandalay, and Taung Pauk Sayadaw of Mawlamyine that it is a yak, a Tibetan beast of burden, useful also for its milk and flesh. The fan made of its tail is one of the emblems of royality.

Wishing to prevent damage, the yak will sacrifice its life not making any effort to release it when even a single hair of its tail happens to be caught in the branches of a bush. Sumedha admonished himself to take the example set by a yak and preserve the purity of morality even at the risk of his life.

Miscellaneous notes on different rspects of Morality.

As with Perfection of Dāna, these notes are given in the form of answers to the following questions quoting the authority of the Visuddhimagga, the Path of Purification:

(1) What is Morality?
(2) Why is it called Morality ?
(3) What are the characteristics, functions, manifestations, and proximate cause of Morality?
(4) What are the benefits of Morality ?
(5) How many types of Morality are there ?
(6) What are the defiling factors of Morality ?
(7) What are the purifying factors of Morality ?

Exposition of Morality.

[ 121 ](1) WHAT IS MORALITY?

Various factors which may be defined as Morality are mental volition (cetanā) which arises in the person who abstains from wrong physical actions such as killing, etc., or which arises when performing duties towards one's elders, teachers, etc.; the three mental factors of abstention (viratī) i.e. right speech, right action, and right livelihood; greedlessness (alobha or anabhijjhā), absence of ill-will (adosa or abyāpāda), right view (sammadiṭṭhi or amoha); the five restraints (to be described in full later) and the mental factor of avitikkama.

Thus morality may be conveniently studied under five heads:

(1) Volition that accompanies one when abstaining from wrong physical or verbal action or when performing duties towards one's elders or teachers, etc.;
(2) the three mental factors of abstention from wrong action, wrong speech and wrong livelihood;
(3) the three right mental actions of anabijjha, abyapada and sammādiṭṭhi;
(4) the five restraints (samvara); and
(5) the mental factor which arises when avoiding transgressions.

(a) Morality of volition (cetanā sīla) and (b) Morality of abstinence (viratī sīla)

The three wrong physical actions are taking the life of other beings, taking what is not given and sexual misconduct. The four wrong verbal actions are telling lies, gossiping or backbiting, using harsh, abusive words and indulgence in vain, frivolous talks. These two categories of wrong actions may be committed in association with earning a livelihood (like that of a fisherman or a hunter), or may not be associated with earning livelihood (like game hunting for sport).

[ 122 ] Likewise, abstaining from these two categories of wrong actions may or may not be associated with earning a livelihood. Abstaining from three wrong physical actions when not associated with earning a livelihood is known as abstention through right action (sammā kammanta viratī); abstaining from the four wrong verbal actions when not associated with earning a livelihood is known as abstention through right speech (sammā vaca viratī); abstaining from these two categories of wrong actions when associated with earning a livelihood, and from various kinds of wrong livelihood (especially those kinds which bhikkhus are enjoined against) is known as abstention through right livelihood (sammā ājiva viratī).

The three mental factors of abstention mentioned above are known as morality of abstention (viratī sīla) and the mental factor of volition that accompanies them is known as morality of volition (cetanā sīla). The volition that arises when performing acts of great merit of attending upon one's teacher is also known as morality of volition (cetanā sīla).

The greed that prompts one to covet others' property, harbouring the thought, "It would be good if these were mine" is known as the wrong mental action of covetousness (abhijjhā manoduccarita). When one dispels such thoughts, there arise in one the mental factors of dispelling volition (cetanā) and greedlessness (alobha) or noncovetousness (anabhijjhi). These mental factors are called Morality.

Wishing harm to someone, there arises in a person the mental factor of hatred which is known as wrong mental action of ill-will (byāpāda manoduccarita). When one dispels such thoughts of ill-will, there arise in him the mental factors of dispeling volition and hatelessness (adosa or abyāpāda). These mental factors are called Morality.

When someone holds that there is no such thing. as generosity and that there are no beneficial results accruing [ 123 ] from it, he holds a wrong view which is called wrong mental action of wrong view (micchā diṭṭhi manoduccarita). When he dispels such beliefs, there arise in him the dispelling volition and non-delusion (amoha) or right view (sammā diṭṭhi). These mental factors are called Morality.

When three wrong mental actions (abhijjhā, byāpāda, and micchā diṭṭhi) are present, a person is liable to commit such demeritorious deeds as killing, etc., which ruin one's sīla. When volition and the three right mental actions arise in one, it is impossible for one to commit deeds such as killing, etc., which are ruinous to one's sīla. Therefore the three right mental actions of anabhijjbā, abyāpāda and samma diṭṭhi are called Morality,

When consciousness arises, it is always accompanied by volition. That volition is responsible for prompting the mind to take notice of an object; it serves as a link between the mind and an object. Without its prompting, there would be no mind-object linkage; the mind will not rest on the object; it will not be aware of the object. It is only through the services of volition that a mind-object linkage is possible at all. Thus every volition accompanying consciousness that arises for each moral act is called Morality.

(d) Morality of restraints (Saṃvara Sīla) and (e) Morality of avoiding transgression (avītikkama sīla)

The kinds of morality as described apply to laymen and bhikkhus equally. But there are other forms of morality which are concerned with bhikkhus only, viz: morality of restraints (saṃavara sīla) and morality of avoiding transgressions (avītikkama sīla).

Morality of Restraints:.

(i) Pātimokkha Saṃvara: Restraint through the Fundamental Precepts for bhikkhus, observance of which liberates the observer from the dangers of rebirths in the realms of miseries and continuous suffering.
[ 124 ] (ii) Sati Saṃvara: Restraint through Mindfulness which means keeping close guard over the doors of the five senses: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind so that no 'thief of demeritoriousness' can gain entry into one.
(iii) Ñāṇa Saṃvara: Restraint through Wisdom, which means control of the mind with insight so that the current of mental defilements of craving, wrong view and ignorance which normally flows incessantly stops flowing. Under this head is also included Paccayasanissita Sīla, exercise of proper care over the use of requisites.
(iv) Khanti Saṃvara: Restraint through Forbearance which means controlling the mind so that no defiling thoughts disturb it when enduring extreme heat or cold.
(v) Viriya Saṃvara: Restraint through Development of Energy which means strenuous mental exertion to prevent the arising of demeritorious thoughts: sensuous thought (kāma vitakka), thought of ill-will (byāpāda vitakka), thought of cruelty (vihimsā vitakka). Purification of livelihood (Ājivapārisuddhi Sīla) is also included under this head.

(e) Morality of avoiding transgression (avītikkama sīla)

This is the morality cultivated through avoidance of physical and verbal transgression of precepts which one has undertaken to observe.

From the above descriptions of five kinds of Saṃvara Sīla and Avitikkama Sīla, it could be inferred that in essence Patimokkha Samvara Sīla means a group of mental factors (cetasikas) including volition and the three abstentions of non-greed (alobha), non-hate (adosa) and non-delusion (amoha): Sati Saṃvara means the mental factor of Sati, mindfulness. (which is also accompanied [ 125 ] by volition); Ñāṇa Saṃvara means the mental factor of wisdom (which is also accompanied by volition); Khantī Saṃvara means a group of moral consciousness and mental factors headed by non-hate which has the characteristic of not losing temper, in other words, the mental factor of non-hate; Viriya Saṃvara means mental factor of energy (which is also accompanied by volition).

As for Avitikkama Sīla, in ultimate sense, it is a group of moral consciousness and mental factors which lead one to avoid transgression of precepts which one is observing. In the case of generosity, (dāna) volition forms its basis. For morality, too, volition serves as a main factor, but in addition to it, the group of moral consciousness and mental factors led by the three abstentions, the three mental factors of non-greed, non-hate, non-delusion and the three mental factors of mindfulness, wisdom, energy also play their respective roles.

End of definition of Morality.

(2) WHY IS IT CALLED MORALITY?

The Pāḷi word sīla is translated 'morality' or 'virtue'; it is adopted in toto in the Myanma language. Sīla has two meanings: first, it is employed to convey the sense of natural character, behaviour or habit. We find it used in this sense in such expression as Pāpakaraṇa-sīlo, 'one who is in the habit of doing evil'; dubbhāsana-sīlo, 'one who is in the habit of speaking evil'; abhivādana-sīlo, 'one who is in the habit of showing reverence to those worthy of homage'; Dhammakathana-sīlo, 'one who is in the habit of teaching the doctrines'. It is also employed to describe natural phenomena: Vassāna-samaye rukkha ruhana-sīla, 'trees usually grow during the rainy season'; gimhasamaye patta patanasīla, 'leaves usually fall in summer'. In this first sense, sīla is employed to describe the habits of both moral and immoral persons; and also natural events which are outside the domain of moral good or bad.

[ 126 ] Secondly, it has the meaning of good practice which implies only that practice which is noble, moral, ethical. This is the sense employed in this chapter on the Perfection of Morality. And in this sense also, there are two meanings, namely, (a) orientating and (b) upholding.

(a) 'Orientating' means controlling one's physical and verbal actions and steering them towards right direction so that they do not get out of hand. In a person who does not observe the precepts, physical and verbal actions take place in a haphazard manner like loose yarn not properly wound in a roll uncontrolled and undirected. But a person who observes the precepts, watches closely over his physical and verbal actions to see that they take place in an orderly manner under his proper control. Even a person of ill-humour who is easily irritated and loses temper at the slightest provocation can manage to keep his physical and verbal actions under control when he is observing the precepts.
(b) Sīla is upholding' because no act of merit can be accomplished without accompaniment of moral virtue. Meritorious acts can arise only in persons of morality; thus sīla serves as the basis or foundation of all acts of meritoriousness; it facilitates the arising of meritoriousness through performance of meritorious deeds that would lead to rebirths in the four planes of existence (Catubūmaka): the sensuous world, the fine material world, the non-material world and the supra-mundane states.

In this chapter on the perfection of morality, it is mentioned that the hermit Sumedha, having received the definite prophecy that he would become a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One, admonished himself to establish first in the Perfection of Alms-giving. But this does not imply that he should practise generosity first without observance of precepts. In his investigation of the Buddha-making factors by the exercise of Perfection Investigating Wisdom (Pāramī pavicaya Ñaṇā), it was the Perfection of Alms-giving that appeared first in his mind's eye, followed in succession by Perfection of [ 127 ] morality. Perfection of Renunciation, etc., The order of Perfection given in the Text is the order in which they appeared in the mind's eye of the hermit Sumedha. It was not possible for him to discern all the ten Pāramīs simultaneously; they were investigated one after another and were mentioned accordingly. The first Perfection reviewed happened to be the Perfection of Alms-giving; hence it heads the list of the Pāramīs. but this does not mean that the order in the list is the order in which Pāramīs are to be fulfilled.

In actual practice, an act of giving is pure only when the donor is established in morality; alms-giving is made more fruitful when it is preceded by observance of precepts. That is the reason why when bhikkhus are invited by lay people to accept robes and other gifts, they see to it that the lay people are first established in the precepts (even though taking of precepts is not mentioned when making the invitation).

Thus to the question "Why is it called Sīla?" the plain, clear-cut answer is: it is called Sīla because (1) it does not permit physical and verbal actions to take place in a violent, disorderly manner; it controls and directs them to become quiet and gentle, (2) it serves as a foundation for the arising by stages of four classes of moral consciousness, namely, the moral consciousness pertaining to the sensuous world, the moral consciousness pertaining to the material world, the moral consciousness pertaining to the non-material world and the supra-mundane consciousness.

Out of these discussions may arise the following questions: (1) If both morality (sīla) and concentration (samādhi) are orientating, how do they differ in their functions? Sīla promotes calm and peace by keeping physical and verbal actions under proper control; wheras concentration prevents the mind and mental factors that are associated with it from distraction by directing them to converge on a single object. In this manner, morality differs from concentration in its function of orientating-

[ 128 ] (2) If both Morality and the Element of Solidity (Pathavī) are upholding', what is the difference in their functions? Morality is the fundamental cause of the arising of the four classes of moral consciousness; hence it is said to serve as the foundation for the arising of the moral consciousness pertaining to the sensuous world, the moral consciousness pertaining to the material world, the moral consciousness pertaining to the immaterial world and the supra-mundane consciousness.

Just as a royal wet-nurse holds the infant prince in her arms to keep him from crawling all over the royal chamber, so also the Element of Solidity holds together other elements that arise along with it preventing them from dispersing and scattering away in all directions. In this manner, Morality and the Element of Solidity differ in their respective functions of upholding and facilitating. (Visuddhimagga Sub-commentary-Chapter on Morality).

The Visuddhimagga mentions only two grammatical meanings as explained above. But there are different views expressed by other teachers. According to them the Pāḷi word sīla for morality is derived from the words sira or sisa, both meaning 'head'. When the head is cut off, the whole body of a being is destroyed; so also when morality is ruined, all forms of meritoriousness come to ruins. Thus morality is like the head of the body of meritoriousness and termed 'sīla', a derivative of sira or sisa by replacing the letter 'r' or 's' with '1'.

But the author opines that this alternative view is farfetched, since it draws only upon the similarity of the sounds produced by uttering the words sira, sisa and sīla and does not deal with the intrinsic meaning of the word sīla as defined in the Abhidhānappadipikā verse no. 1092.

He concludes that moralitg is called sīla because, according to the Abhidhānappadipikā, it conveys two meanings of (1) natural characteristic, and (2) good practice.

Although natural characteristic may mean both good, and bad ones as explained above, since we are dealing [ 129 ] with the habit and practices of ancient sages or of Future Buddhas, Arahants, etc., we should take that sīla refers only to good aspects. For instance, although dhamma may be meritorious or demeritorious when we say 'I take refuge in the Dhamma,' the dhamma here can only be the meritorious dhamma. So also, although saṃgha means 'a group,' 'an assemblage' in such words as 'manussa-saṃgha', 'a group of people', sakuna-saṃgha, 'a flock of birds', when we say "I take refuge in the Saṃgha", it implies only the Order of bhikkhus.

Considering in this manner, sīla should also be taken in the sense of the Abhidhānappadipikā definition of 'natural characteristic'. Thus it should be stated that it is called Morality because it is the natural characteristic of ancient sages, Future Buddhas, Arahants, etc.

(3) WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION, ETC.?

Morality has the characteristic of controlling one's physicial and verbal actions and orientating them towards right direction; it also serves as a basis or foundation of all meritoriousness.

Its function is to prevent one from becoming immoral through uncontrolled physical and verbal actions. It helps one to remain spotless in conduct, free from blame by the wise.

Morality is manifested as purity in thought, word and deed. When the wise reflect on the nature of morality, they come to realise that it is the purity of physical action, the purity of verbal action and the purity of mental action.

The proximate cause for arising of morality is moral shame for doing an immoral act (hiri) and moral dread for doing an immoral act (ottappa). Although listening to the Dhamma promotes arising of morality, it serves only as a remote cause. It is only through hiri and ottappa the precepts are observed.

[ 130 ](4) WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF MORALITY?

A man of virtuous conduct enjoys many benefits such as a gladdening heart which leads to joy and happiness (Pāmojja). This in turn results in delightful satisfaction (pīti). In one who enjoys delightful satisfaction, there arises calmness of mind and body (passaddhi) followed by bliss (sukha). The tranquil state of mind and body brings about development of concentration (samadhi) which enables one to see things as they really are (yathābhūtañāṇa). When one gains this knowledge of things as they really are, one gets wearied of and detached from the ills and suffering of the cycle of rebirths. In him arises powerful insight into reality (balava Vippassanā-ñāṇa). With this insight he becomes detached from craving and achieves the knowledge of the Path, which leads to full liberation (vimutti) through the knowledge of Fruition. After gaining the Path and Fruition knowledge, he develops reflective knowledge (paccavekkhanā-ñāṇa) which enables him to see that the cessation of phenomena of the aggregates of nāma and rupa has taken place in him. In other words, he has realised the Perfect Peace, Nibbāna. Thus morality has many benefits including the realisation of Nibbāna. (AN III, P. 615).

In several discourses the Buddha mentions the following five benefits gained by one who observes precepts and who is established in morality:

(1) based on mindfulness through sīla, he acquires great wealth;
(2) he gains fame and good reputation;
(3) he approaches and enters any assembly of nobles, brahmins, householders or recluses with complete self-assurance (born of his morality), without any indication of inferiority complex;
(4) he lives the full span of life and dies unconfused. (An immoral person repents on his death bed that he has not done meritorious deeds throughout his life; a man of moral habits never suffers from any remorse [ 131 ] when death approaches him; instead, memories of good deeds previously performed by him flashed past his mind's eye making him fearless, mentally lucid, unconfused to face death even as someone who is about to acquire a golden pot gladly abandons an earthen pot.)
(5) he is reborn after that in happy realms of Devas and human beings.

(DN II, p. 73; AN II, p. 22 I; Vin III, p. 322)

In the Ākaṅkheyya Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha enumerates 13 benefits which come from practising morality; such benefits range from reverence and respect shown by fellow followers of the teaching to realization of Arahatta phala, that is, attainment of Arahantship.

(5) HOW MANY TYPES OF MORALITY ARE THERE?

Morality in Groups of Twos:

(1) Precept involving performance of certain action (Cāritta); Precept of abstentions (Vāritta).

Of these two kinds, the precept laid down by the Buddha saying 'This should be done' is Cāritta Sīla. For example, performance of duties towards a preceptor (upajjhaya vatta); or duties towards a teacher (ācariya vatta), is fulfilment of Cārritta Sīla through practice.

Not doing what is prohibited by the Buddha saying, 'This should not be done' is fulfilment of Varitta Sīla. For example, observance of Pārajika rules of the Vinaya (which prohibits bhikkhus from indulgence in sexual intercourse, from stealing, from killing and from falsely claiming attainments to Magga and Phala Insight) is observance of Varitta Sīla through avoidance.

Some people casually misinterpret these disciplinary rules saying that Cāritta Sīla is the precept which would lead to no offence if it is not fulfilled, but its observance [ 132 ] contributes to purity of one's morality. In interpreting thus they make no distinction between bhikkhus and lay men.

Actually, the Buddha has laid down definite disciplinary rules concerning duties to be performed by a pupil towards his preceptor or teacher. Any co-resident pupil who fails to abide by these rules not only fails to fulfil the Cāritta Sīla but is also guilty of breaking the disciplinary rules concerning performance of duties (vatta bhedaka dukkata āpatti).

Thus, for bhikkhus, it cannot be said that non-fulfilment of Cāritta Sīla would lead to no offence; for them, Cāritta Sīla is the mandatory observance of the precepts laid down by the Buddha.

As for lay men, it may be said that avoidance of wrong deeds which would definitely give rise to rebirths in lower planes of existence falls under the categery of Cāritta sīla On the other hand abstinence from wrong deeds which may or may not result in such rebirths varitta had showing reverence to the aged should be classified as Cāritta Sīla.

For example, there are five precepts to be observed by lay men: abstinence from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and taking intoxicants. Indulgence in these deeds, instead of avoiding them, leads definitely to lower planes of existence. Therefore abstaining from these five wrong deeds which will certainly result in such rebirths constitutes Vāritta Sīla.

A lay person can also observe the eight precepts which include the avoidance of killing, stealing, lying and taking intoxicants, (these four precepts, falling under the category of (Vāritta Sīla) and the additional four precepts of total sexual abstinence, abstaining from not eating afternoon, abstaining from dancing, singing, playing music, and enjoying to them, and abstaining from using high and luxurious beds.

Actions included in these four additional precepts do not necessarily lead to the lower planes of existence. [ 133 ] Lay noble persons such as 'Stream Winners' (Sotāpanna), 'Once Returners' (Sakadāgāmi) enjoy lawful sexual relations with their own spouses, eat afternoon, dance, sing, etc., and sleep on high and luxurious beds. But since they do so with mind unassociated with wrong view (Dihi-vippayutta Citta) their action will not result in rebirths in the lower planes of existence.

But an ordinary worldling may do these acts' with mind either accompanied by wrong view (diṭṭhi-sampayutta) unaccompanied by wrong view (diṭṭhi-vippayutta). These actions may or may not lead to rebirths in the lower plane of existence. Therefore the four precepts namely, total sexual abstinence, abstaining from eating afternoon, abstaining from dancing, singing, playing music, etc., and abstaining from using high and luxurious beds should be called Cāritta Sīla.

When a person who has taken refuge in the Buddha. the Dhamma and the Saṃgha observes the five precepts with meticulous care he would be a lay disiciple of the Buddha, an Upāsaka. If he makes further efforts to observe the eight precepts, it is for the purpose of practising holy life at a higher level of endeavour. But the Buddha has not said that the observance of the eight precepts will save one from the lower destinations and that observance of the five precepts alone is not enough to secure safety from the danger of falling into the lower planes of existence.

In this sense, therefore, the four additional observances included in the eight precepts should be considered to belong to the category of Cāritta Sīla. For bhikkhus. however, the Buddha has strictly forbidden them from indulging in these four acts; hence, for bhikkhus, avoidance of these acts constitutes definitely Vāritta Sīla.

Note for special consideration.

A cursory reading of the above distinction between Cāritta Sīla and Vāritta Sīla or a superficial consideration of the fact of indulgence by noble disciples such as Visākha in lawful sexual relation, eating afternoon, [ 134 ] dancing, singing, playing music, etc., in using high and luxurious beds could lead one to wrong conceptions. One could easily take the wrong view that all such acts are faultless, blameless; one is then liable to indulge in them more and more with the accompaniment of wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi). It is most important that one should not fall into such error of conception.

Killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and taking intoxicants, being demeritorious wrong deeds, invariably lead to the lower planes of existence. There is no escape from their ill consequences. That is why noble persons, Ariyas, will never do such acts even if they are under the threat of death to do so. They will willingly give up their lives rather than acquiesce to do such acts, because they have uprooted through Magga Insight all traces of latent tendency (anusaya) to do demeritorious acts. Just because Ariyas such as the 'Stream Winners', 'Once-Returners', 'Non-Returners', indulge in taking food afternoon, etc., just as ordinary persons do, it is not correct to say that they do so with identical mental attitudes in their various acts.

The Ariyas do not look upon objects of sense pleasure in the same way an ordinary worldling does; their manner of indulgence in sense pleasure is also different from that of worldlings.

The Commentary to the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN I, p.350) says that the Ariya's attitude towards pleasurable sense-objects is like that of a clean Brahmin, who, pursued by an elephant in rut, seeks refuge with loathing and much reluctance in a dumping ground of excreta. When oppressed by craving for sensual pleasures, the defilement that has not been eradicated by the knowledge of the Path, the 'Stream Winner' or the 'Once Returner' deals with objects of sensual pleasures with mind unaccompanied by wrong view, just to pacify, subdue the burning heat of the defilement.

[ 135 ] This exposition deserves careful consideration. Citing the example of Ariya persons such as Visakha, the worldling is liable to say wrongly that the Ariyas indulge in sense-pleasures exactly in the same way as he does. As pointed out in the Aṅguttara Commentary, the Ariyas enjoy sense pleasures, with mind unaccompanied by wrong view just to calm the burning desire, the defilement they have not yet destroyed with the knowledge of the Path, whereas the worldling indulges in sense pleasures generally with mind associated with wrong view.

To summarise, one may have sex relation with one's spouse, take meal afternoon, dance, sing, play music, etc., and use high and luxurious beds etc., with mind accompanied by wrong view resulting in rebirths in the lower planes of existence, or with mind unaccompanied by wrong view not resulting in the lower planes of existence. Therefore abstinence from these four actions (which may not lead to the lower planes of existence) should be classed as Cāritta Sīla and not as Vāritta Sīla.

The division of the Eight Precepts into four Cāritta Sīla and four Vāritta Sīla is tenable only when the vow of abstinence is made, separately for each individual precept as is current now. Should the vow be taken for the whole group of the Eight Precepts, saying, "I observe the Eight precepts," it would simply be observance of Cāritta Sīla, because the Eight Precepts constitute a code of morality which one may or may not observe.

As for the Five Precepts, whether the vow is taken for the Five Precepts as a whole or as separate individual precepts, its observance is practice of Vāritta Sīla definitely. (More detailed treatment of Vāritta and Cāritta Sīlas is given in the Chapter on Miscellany below).

Of the two categories of Sīla, observance of Cāritta Sīla can be accomplished only when one is endowed with faith and energy. Faith is believing [ 136 ] that good results will follow good deeds of practising morality; and energy means the relentless effort with which one observes the precepts in keeping with his faith.

No special effort is needed to become accomplished in the observance of the Vāritta Sīla. It requires only faith. Mere refrain through faith from doing deeds which the Buddha has taught to be demeritorious is sufficient for the fulfilment of Vāritta Sīla.

(2) Group of moral practices (Abhisamācārika Sīla) which promote good conduct and which include all forms of virtuous acts other than those classed as a set of eight precepts with right livelihood as the eighth, Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla. All forms of moral practices which are taught for fulfilment of the Path and the Fruition come under this classification.

Since it forms the beginning of the life of purity consisting in the Path, the set of eight precepts consisting of the practices of the right livelihood. (Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is also termed Ādibrahmacariyaka Sīla.

Precepts with right livelihood as the eighth, Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla includes three moral physicāl actions: abstaining from killing, from stealing, from indulging in wrongful sexual intercourse; four moral verbal actions: abstaining from lying, from malicious speech, from using harsh and abusive words, from frivolous talks; and finally abstaining from wrong livelihood.

The Visuddhimagga states that the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla may also be termed Ādibrahmacariyaka Sīla as it includes precepts which are to be fulfilled in the initial stage of developing the Noble Path.

This Commentary statement is likely to be misinterpreted by some as to mean that only Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is the precept which should be observed first for the attainment of the Path. There have even appeared some groups which maintained that the Five precepts, the Eight Precepts and the Ten Precepts, which are [ 137 ] generally observed at present, are not the initial precepts which should be observed for the attainment of the Path.

On the other hand, there are some people who say that they have not even heard of this strange code of morality called Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla; it could not have been taught by the Buddha; it may be a later accretion of no particular worth.

As a matter of fact, Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is certainly the precept taught by the Buddha himself. The Visuddhi Magga quoted the Uparipannasa Pāḷi (5 Vagga, 7 Sutta) "Tenāha pubbeva kho panassa kāyakammam vacikammam ājivo suparisuddho hotī ti" to show that the Buddha taught the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla, the set of precepts with right livelihood as the eighth.

The Buddha made his appearance in the world at a time when it was enveloped in the dark mass of evil forces. People were depraved, bereft of morality, steeped as they were in evil thoughts, words and deeds. When the Buddha wanted to inculcate in those wild, debased beings a sense of gentle civility through practice of morality, he had to select a moral code from amongst various sets of precepts which would best suit their coarse minds. He thus taught them at the initial stages the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla. When the grosser forms of evil had been removed from the habits of the untamed beings by teaching them the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla, the Buddha no longer made use of it; instead he taught the Five Precepts and the Eight Precepts in his further civilizing endeavours.

Having thus been set aside by the Buddha when a certain stage of moral purification has been reached by the people, successive teachers from the time of the Buddha till the present time have not given much attention to the Ajivaṭṭhamaka Sīla; lay people also have not made special effort to observe it (because Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla was originally meant for people of debased morality only).

[ 138 ] A question arises here: since Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla forms the initial practice for the Path and since it had been used at the time when the Buddha first appeared, would it not be even more suitable to observe it at the present time ?

The term 'initial practice for the Path' is applicable only when the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is observed by those who have no code of morality whatever at the start to serve as the precept for the Path. Those who have only recently given up wrong views and begun to embrace Buddhism should no doubt start to purify themselves by observing this Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla but when they have become well established in the Buddhist belief after being well trained in the Sīla, it should no longer be termed "the initial practice for the Path."

Even children of Buddhist parents have been taught to understand the dire consequences of gross misdeeds such as taking the life of sentient beings and they refrain from doing so. Accordingly when they grow up and begin to observe precepts, there is no need for them to keep the Ājivaṭṭhamaka Sīla. They should gradually advance in their training from the Five Precepts to the Eight Precepts and on to the Ten Precepts.

In other words, observance of Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is the necessary step which those steeped in immorality should take to rid themselves of debased habits; but for those who have been well brought up under the guidance of Buddhist parents, it is clear that they already possess a modicum of moral conduct. Therefore there is no special need for them to observe the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla. What has been said above applies to the present time when the Buddha's Teaching is widely extant.

Although brought up in a Buddhist environment and taught to refrain from gross misdeeds, if one judges oneself to be deficient in moral conduct and [ 139 ] to have committed all kinds of grave transgression, one has no alternative but to start with the initial purification process of observing the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla for the practice of the Noble Path.

Those inclined to follow the line of least resistence are likely to find this Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla attractive if someone points out that in observing this Sīla, one does not have to refrain from indulging in intoxicating drinks and drugs, one does not have to refrain from dancing, singing, enjoying shows, that it is easily observed being free from difficult restraints and that it serves as the basis for the attainment of the Path and the Fruition.

It is a weakness of human nature to look for easy means of acquiring wealth. People forget or ignore the fact that even with hard labour and diligent work, it is not always possible to have one's dream of riches fulfilled. Many of them have become a prey to fraudulent villains who claim to possess magical secrets of multiplying one's wealth. By seeking an easy way of becoming rich, people have fallen victim to their own avarice.

Just as there are deceivers in wordly affairs there are also frauds in religious matters especially concerning the attainment of the Path and the Fruition which is, of course, not easy at all to come by. Many are those who, inclining to seek short cuts, have followed to their great loss the spurious teachings of self-acclaimed masters who promise them the stage of a 'StreamWinner' within seven days of practising their technique or that of a 'Once Returner' if one has adequate intellectual development. After finishing their seven days' course of practice the master announces pseudoattainments of his pupils as a 'Stream-Winner' or a 'Once Returner' who consequently are delighted with their illusory achievements.

Here we would like to sound a note of caution. The copper metal if it could be converted into [ 140 ] the precious metal of gold, through practice of alchemy, would become possessed of the properties of gold which are vastly different from those of the original base metal of copper. Likewise a noble person known as an Ariya who has achieved the First Path and Fruiton only as a 'Stream-Winner' is easily distinguished from an ordinary worldling by means of his physical, verbal, mental demeanour. Instead of placidly accepting the announcement of the master as having attained the stage of a 'Stream-Winner' or a 'OnceReturner" one should by self-introspection examine one's true nature to see if one has changed for the better and has truly benefited by the seven days' course of practice. Only by self-evaluation in this manner could one save oneself from being misled by dubious teachers of religion.

Thus in matters of observing the precepts or in other pursuits there is no short cut or easy way to achieve one's cherished object. A person addicted to drinks will not be able to observe even the Five Precepts, not to speak of the higher practices such as the Eight Precepts.

The group of moral precepts other than the said Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is classified as Abhisamācārika Sīla, precepts which promote good conduct. Even the Five Precepts are to be considered as superior to the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla.

It may be questioned: 'How could the Five Precepts which have only one restraint (i.e., not to speak lies) out of the four verbal restraints be superior to the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla which requires the observance of all the four verbal restraints (lying, gossipping, using abusive language and engaging in frivolous talks)?

The answer lies in the fact that of the four verbal restraints, lying forms the basis of 'breach of all the verbal restraints. The Buddha teaches that for one who commits falsehood, there is no misdeed which he is not liable to perpetuate; and one who can abstain from lying can easily observe the remaining precepts.

[ 141 ] How could one who does not speak lies engage himself in slandering, abusing and frivolous talks? This explains why only the restraint of falsehood is included as the main verbal restraint in the Five Precepts. No question arises therefore that the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla is superior to the Five Precepts.

Again it may be asked: Since the precept to refrain from wrong livelihood, which does not feature in the Five Precepts, forms the Eighth Precept of the Ajivaṭṭhamaka Sīla, surely it should be deemed superior to the Five Precepts.

The answer in brief to this question is: For one who observes the Five Precepts, no special effort is needed to refrain from wrong livelihood. After all, wrong livelihood means earning one's living through wrong means of killing, stealing and lying. By observing the Five Precepts meticulousIy, one is automatically avoiding the misdeeds of killing, stealing and lying. Thus the precept to refrain from wrong livelihood as an additional observance in the Ājīvaṭṭhamaka Sīla does not justify the claim of its superiority over the Five Precepts. What has been discussed above applies only to lay devotees.

For members of the Saṃgha the rules of discipline laid down by the Buddha for them as expounded in the Vinaya Pitaka are known as Sikkhāpadas. The offences, for which penalties are imposed, may be classified under seven categories depending on their nature:

(i) Pārājika, (ii) Saṃghādisesa, (iii) Thullaccaya,
(iv) Pācittiya, (v) Patidesaniya, (vi) Dukkata, and
(vii) Dubbhāsita.

An offence in the first category of offences (Pārājika), and one in the second category (Saṃghādisesa), are classified as grave offences, garukāpatti.

The remaining five categories which consist of light offences are called lahukāpatti.

[ 142 ] The group of moral precepts observed by bhikkhus so that there is no breach of lesser and minor offences classified under lahukāpatti is known as Abhisamācārika Sīla; that observed by them to avoid transgression of grave offences, garukāpatti, is known as Adibrahmacariyaka Sīla.

Of the five volumes of the Vinaya Pitaka, Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi, also known as Ubhato Vibhaṅga deal with codes of morality which belong to Ādibrahmacariya category of Sīla; Mahā Vagga Pāḷi and Cū1a Vagga Pāḷi which are collectively termed Khandhaka Vagga describe the group of morality which has been classified Abhisamācārika Sīla. (The last volume, Parivāra, gives a summary and classification of the rules in the four previous volumes)-

(Bhikkhus become accomplished in Ādibrahmacariyaka Sīla only after completing observance of Abhisamacarika Sīla. When a bhikkhu meticulously avoids transgression of even a minor fault, a light offence, it goes without saying that he will take the greatest care not to be guilty of grave offences).

Again:

(3) Morality is of two kinds:

(a) Viratī Sīla, and
(b) Aviratī Sīla.

(a) Viratī Sīla means the mental concomitants of three abstinences, that is, right speech, right action and right livelihood as explained under the heading "What is morality?" (See page 117 ).
(b) Aviratī Sīla consists of precepts associated with various mental concomitants such as volition, etc., other than the mental factors of three abstinences (viratī).

Again:

(4) Morality is of two kinds:

(a) Nissita Sīla, and
(b) Anissita Sīla.

[ 143 ] (a) Nissita Sīla is morality practised depending upon craving or upon wrong view. When one observes precepts with the aim of achieving a happy existence in the future abounding in wealth and property, one's sīla is called morality of dependence upon craving. Observance of precepts or rituals (such as imitating cows or dogs) in the wrong belief that they are conducive to spiritual purification is called morality of dependence upon wrong view.

(Those who have embraced Buddhism are not likely to practise the morality of dependence upon wrong view; but they should guard themselves against practising the morality of dependence upon craving which they are liable to do).

(b) Anissita Sīla is morality practised without depending upon craving or upon wrong view with the sole aim of cultivating the noble practice. This means practice of mundane morality which is prerequisite for that supramundane morality.

Again:

(5) Morality is of two kinds:

(a) Kālapariyanta Sīla, and
(b) Āpāṇakoṭika Sīla.

(a) Kālapariyanta Sīla is morality observed for a limited period.
(b) Āpāṇakotika Sīla is morality observed for life.

In describing Kālapariyanta Sīla, the Visuddhimagga mentions only in a general way the limit of the observing period (kālaparicchedaṃ katvā samādinnam sīlaṃ). But its Tikā is more specific in prescribing the time limit: whole day or whole night, etc., (kālaparicchedaṃ katvā ti imañ ca rattiṃ imañ ca divan ti ādinā viya kālavasena paricchedam katvā).

Nowadays, many people take the precepts without mentioning any time limit; so it seems for life. But as the intention is to observe a certain precept for a day [ 144 ] or a limited period only, it is certainly a tempoary morality. As the formulae in the Commentary and the Sub-Commentary for taking the vow of precept mentioned above require the stating of the period of observance, one should mention the period during which one would observe the precept. However, neglecting to do so constitutes no fault; it would still be a temporary practice of morality.

The intention though unspoken is generally assumed to be for the whole period of a day, or a night, or a whole day and night. But it is not necessarily so according to the Commentary on the Paṭisambhidā Magga which states that one may observe the precepts for one sitting, like lay devotees who, having established themselves in the Triple Gem, observe a set of Precepts while making a donation to an invited bhikkhu in their home. They observe the Precepts only for the duration of the ceremony of almsgiving. Or they may undertake to observe a set of precepts during their sojourn at a monastery for a day or two or more. These are all observances of temporary morality.

Thus according to this Commentary, it is beneficial to observe precepts even for a very short period. Therefore teachers explain that it is quite proper to encourage children who are not used to go without an evening meal to take the eight precepts on uposatha days and observe them all throughout the morning only. One always gains merit for doing the good deed of observing precepts, however short the duration of the observance may be.

Two stories in the Cuḷa Vagga of the Peta Vatthu illustrate this point. During the time of the Buddha there was in Rājagaha a hunter who earned his living by killing deer day and night. A friend of his was a disciple of the Buddha being established in the Triple Refuge. The friend advised the hunter to refrain from the evil act of killing game animals. But his advice fell on deaf ears. Undaunted, he suggested to the hunter to refrain from killing at least during night time and instead to engage himself in the meritorious act of observing precepts. The hunter finally [ 145 ] gave in to his friend's persistent persuasion, and abandoning all acts of preparations for killing during night time, he spent his time observing precepts.

After his death, the hunter gained rebirth near Rājagaha as a Vemānika peta, who was subjected to great suffering during the day, but lived a happy life at night enjoying fully the pleasures of the senses.

The Venerable Nārada Thera, encountering this peta in the course of his wanderings, enquired of him as to what kind of meritorious acts he had performed in his previous lives. The peta recounted his life as a hunter, how he earned his living by killing, how his friend who was established in the Triple Refuge counselled him to give up his wrong mode of living, how he refused his friend's good advice at first but finally succumbed to his persuasion half-heartedly by giving up hunting at night time and devoting to good deed of observing precepts. For his cruel misdeeds in the day time, he was suffering intensely during the day while at night he lived the blissful, sensuous life of Devas.

The second peta story is similar. (But it concerns a wealthy sportsman who hunted deer day and night as a pastime for sheer enjoyment, not for livelihood. He also paid no heed to a friend of his who proffered him good advice for his benefit. Ultimately, he was won over by an Arahant who came on an alms-round to his friend's house, who instructed him to devote at least the night time to meritorious acts instead of full-time pursuit after sport. He suffered the same fate after death as the hunter of the previous story.)

We learn from these two stories that we reap the benefit of meritorious deeds even if they were performed only for the short period of night time. Accordingly, we should make an endeavour to observe the precepts for whatever time we could afford however short it may be.

Again:

(6) Morality is of two kinds:

(a) Sapariyanta Sīla, and
(b) Apariyanta Sīla.

[ 146 ] (a) Sapariyanta Sīla is morality, the observance of which is brought to an end before a stipulated time for some reason such as being coaxed or tempted with an offer of wealth or servants and attendants to break the observance or being threatened with destruction of one's life and limb or of one's relatives to do so. In this type of Sīla it should be noted that although its observance is brought to an end through outside interference, nevertheless merit has been already gained commensurate with one's precepts. Sīla observed before is not rendered fruitless by its termination.

(b) Apariyanta Sīla is morality, the observance of which is not cut short by any outside influence but is maintained till completion of the intended period.

Again:

(7) Morality is of two kinds:

(a) Lokiya Sīla, and
(b) Lokuttara Sīla.

(a) Lokiya Sīla is morality subject to (or accompanied by) mental intoxicants (āsavas) such as sensual desire, desire for future existence, wrong view and ignorance.

(b) Lokuttara Sīla is morality not subject to (or not accompanied by) the mental intoxicants.

Lokiya Sīla is conducive to happy future rebirths (asa human being or a Deva) and is a prerequisite for escape from the cycle of rebirths. Lokuttara Sīla brings about escape from saṃsara; it is also an object for contemplation with Reflective Knowledge (Paccavekkhanā Ñāṇa).

End of Morality in Groups of Twos

[ 147 ] Morality in Groups of Threes.

(1) Morality is of three kinds:

(a) Hīna Sīla,
(b) Majjhima Sīla, and
(c) Paṇīta Sīla.

(a) When the four elements-will (chanda), energy (vīriya), consciousness (citta). and investigative knowledge (vīmaṃsa)-with which precepts are observed are of inferior quality, it is Hīna Sīla; (b) when they are of medium quality, it is Majjhima Sīla; (c) when they are of superior quality, it is Paṇīta Sīla.

(a) When morality is observed through desire for fame, it is Hīna Sīla. Such an observance is an act of hypocrisy, a deceptive show of sham piety, without pure volition for doing a genuine meritorious deed. Hence it is low (hina).

(b) Observance of morality through desire for a good destination is no doubt associated with a certain amount of greed, but it is a wholesome wish for beneficial results of one's good deeds and is accompanied by volition and faith. Hence it is nobler than one observed through desire for fame.

On the other hand, since the motivating force here is stir tainted with the expectation of beneficial results from one's meritoriousness, it is not ranked a superior kind, but only a middle one.

(c) The morality observed not through desire for fame nor through desire for reaping beneficial results of one's good deeds, but through understanding that observance of precept is a noble practice for pure life and through realization that one should indeed cultivate these practices, solely for their nobleness is known as a major morality. Only such a morality of superior quality observed with pure wholesome volition unassociated with any form of [ 148 ] greed is reckoned as the genuine Perfection of Morality (Sīla Pāramī).

(When the Bodhisatta took the existence of a Naga, during his two lives as Campeyya Nāga and Bhūridatta Nāga, he could not exert for the superior kind of morality, but observed precepts only in the hope of attaining rebirth as a human being. In that sense, the morality he observed was of medium quality. Nevertheless since he did not break the precepts and persisted in their observance even at the risk of his life, his effort is to be regarded as fulfilment of the Perfection of Morality).

Again:

(a) When the morality is defiled by demeritorious thoughts of self-praise and disparagement of others such as "I am virtuous; others are not virtuous and inferior to me", it is a minor morality.
(b) The morality which is not tainted with such defilements but is a mundane sīla is a middle morality.
(c) When the morality is free from all taints and is associated with supramundane Path and Fruition it is classed as a major morality.

Again:

(a) Minor Morality is the morality that is observed with a view to attain happy prosperous rebirths.
(b) Middle Morality is one practised for self-liberation from the cycle of suffering such as that practised by future ordinary disciples of the Buddhas or by Future Pacceka Buddhas (Non-Teaching Buddhas).
(c) Paṇīta Sīla is observed by Bodhisattas for the purpose of liberating all beings from the cycle of rebirths and it qualifies as Perfection of Morality (Sīla Pāramī). (This Commentarial statement is made with reference to the noblest type of morality. But this does not mean that morality [ 149 ] observed by Bodhisattas alone qualifies as such; morality belonging to Pecceka Buddhas and Disciples of a Buddha, though it is not the noblest type, should also be recognized as Perfection of Morality).

Again:

(2) Morality is of three kinds:

(a) Attādhīpateyya Sīla,
(b) Lokādhipateyya Sīla, and
(c) Dhammādhipateyya Sīla,

(a) Attādhipateyya Sīla is the morality observed out of self-respect and to satisfy one's conscious by abandoning what is unbecoming and unprofitable.
(b) Lokādhipateyya Sīla is the morality observed out of regard for the world and to ward off censure of others,
(c) Dhammādhipateyya Sīla is the morality observed in reverence to the glory of the Buddha's Teaching. One who practises this Sīla is convinced that the discourse of the Buddha on the subjects of the Path, the Fruition and Nibbāna truly show the way to liberation from the cycle of rebirths and that the only way to pay respect to the Dhamma and to honour the Dhamma is through observance of precepts.

Again:

(3) Morality is of three kinds:

(a) Parāmaṭṭha Sīla,
(b) Aparāmaṭṭha Sīla, and
(c) Paṭippassaddha Sīla.

(a) Parāmaṭṭha Sīla is the same as Nissita Sīla (item 4 of the Groups of Twos); it is observed with adherence to craving or wrong view. Because of craving, one is [ 150 ] pleased with the thought that his morality would result in happy destination he longs for and that it is superior to that of others. Because of wrong view, he holds that his morality is the 'Soul or Substance'. In either case, that morality falls under the category of Parāmattha Sīla.

(Even while practising it, this morality burns with the fires of craving and wrong view. The fires of craving and wrong view burn not only when enjoying the sense pleasures, but even while practising almsgiving and morality. Only when the practice of good deeds reaches the state of meditation, that it becomes immune from the ravages of these fires. By practising (Vipassanā Meditation) till one comes to realize that this body is not self, not a personality but mere phenomenon of matter and mind, one can become free from the fires of wrong personality-belief, sakkaya diṭṭhi).

(a) Aparāmaṭṭha Sīla is morality observed by a virtuous worldling (kalyāna puthujjana) who is established in the Triple Gem and who has started cultivating the Noble Path of eight constituents with a view to attain the Path and Fruition. This is also the morality of a learner (sekkha) who, through cultivating the Noble Path of eight constituents, has attained one of the four Paths or the first three Fruitions but still has to work for the Final Goal of the Fourth Fruition.

(b) Paṭippassaddha Sīla is morality that becomes calm on attaining the four Fruition States (of Sotāpatti, Sakadāgāmi, Anāgāmi and Arahatta).

Again:

(4) Morality is of three kinds:

(a) Visuddha Sīla,
(b) Avisuddha Sīla, and
(c) Vematika Sīla.

[ 151 ] (a) Visuddha Sīla is morality of a bhikkhu who has not committed a single offence (of the Vinaya rules) or who has made amends after committing an offence.

(b) Avisuddha Sīla is morality of a bhikkhu who has committed an offence and has not made amends after committing it.

(c) Vematika Sīla is morality of a bhikkhu who has misgivings about the alms-food he has accepted (whether it is bear meat which is not allowable, or pork which is allowable for him); who has misgivings about the offence he has committed (whether it is a pācittiya āpatti or dukkata āpatti) and who is uncertain whether the act he has done constitutes an offence or not.

(A bhikkhu engaged in meditation should endeayour to purify his Sīla if it is impure. Should he be guilty of a light offence (i.e. one of the ninety-two Pācittiya offences), he should remedy it by admission of the offence to a bhikkhu and thus purify his Sīla. Should he be guilty of a grave offence (i.e. one of the thirteen Sanghādisesa offences), he should approach the Saṃgha and confess his offence. Then as ordered by the Saṃgha he should first observe the Parivasa penance⁶ and then carry out the mānatta penance⁷. Then only would his sīla become pure and he is fit for practice of meditation. Should he have doubts about the nature of the alms-food he has accepted or of any of the actions he has done. he should carefully scrutinize them or consult a Vinaya specialist who is learned in the Vinaya rules and thus remove his scruples and purify his Sīla).

[ 152 ] Again:

(5) Morality is of three kinds:

(a) Sekkha Sīla.
(b) Asekkha Sīla, and
(c) Nevasekkha nāsekkha Sīla.

(a) Sekkha Sīla is the morality observed by one who is still undergoing Training. It is the morality associated with those who have attained the Four Paths and the first Three Fruition States.
(b) Asehkha Sīla is the morality observed by one who no longer requires any training. It is the morality associated with those who have attained the Fruition State of an Arahant.
(c) The group of mundane precepts not falling under (a) and (b) is Nevasekkha-nāsekkha Sīla. It is the morality observed by one who is neither a learner nor a nonlearner; it is the morality of an ordinary worldling.

End of Morality in Groups of Threes.

Morality in Groups of Fours.

(1) Morality is of four kinds:

(a) Hānabhāgiya Sīla,
(b) Ṭhitibhāgiya Sīla,
(c) Visesabhāgiya Sīla, and
(d) Nibbedhabhāgiya Sīla.

(a) The morality that is bound to decrease is called Hānabhāgiya Sīla. (A certain bhikkhu associates himself with immoral persons only and does not associate with the virtuous; he does not know or see the fault of committing an offence, he often dwells with wrong [ 153 ] thoughts and does not guard his faculties. The morality of such a bhikkhu makes no progress, instead it decreases day by day.)

(b) The morality that remains stagnant is called ṭhitibhāgiya sīla. (A certain bhikkhu remains satisfied with the morality he is already established in and does not wish to practise meditation for further advancement. He is quite content with mere morality and does not strive for any higher state; his morality neither makes progress nor decreases, it just stagnates.)

(c) The morality that will gain distinction is called Visesabhāgiya Sīla. (A certain bhikkhu, having established himself in morality, is not content with mere morality but strives for concentration of mind. The morality of that bhikkhu is called Visesabhāgiya Sīla or the morality that will gain the special benefit of the concentration of mind.)

(d) The morality that penetrates and dispels the darkness of defilements is Nibbedhabhāgiya Sīla. (A certain bhikkhu is not content with mere morality but strives hard to get, through Vipassanā meditation, strong vipassana-insight (balavavipassanā ñāṇa) which is the knowledge of disgust with the sufferings of the cycle of rebirths. The morality of that bhikkhu is the one that penetrates and dispels the darkness of defilements through the Path and the Fruition.)

Again:

(2) Morality is of four kinds:

(a) Bhikkhu Sīla,
(b) Bhikkhunī Sīla,
(c) Anupasampanna Sīla, and
(d) Gahaṭṭha Sīla,

(a) The rules of discipline promulgated by the Exalted One for bhikkhus and those which should also be observed by them although promulgated for bhikkhunis are called Bhikkhu Sīla.

[ 154 ] (b) The rules of discipline promulgated for Bhikkhunis and those which should also be observed by them although promulgated for bhikkhus are called Bhikkhuni Sīla.

(c) The ten precepts observed by male and female novices or neophytes, sāmaneras and samaneris, are called Anupasampanna Sīla. (Non-bhikkhus are called Anupasampanna. Although lay men are also Anupasampanna according to this definition they will be shown as gahattha separately and are therefore not included here. Only sāmaneras and sāmaneris are taken as anupasampanna by the Commentator. Yet there is another kind called sikkhamāna. As the sikkhamānas are elder sāmaneris who undergo a special training as probationers to become bhikkhunis, they are not mentioned here separately but are reckoned as samaneris).

(d) The morality observed by the laity is called Gahaṭṭha Sīla.

With regard to Gahaṭṭha Sīla the Visuddhimagga says:

"Upasaka upāsikānaṃ niccasīlavasena pañcasikkhāpadāni sati vā ussāhe dasa uposathaṅga vasena aṭṭhāti idaṃ gahaṭṭha-sīlam."

The five precepts as a permanent undertaking, the ten precepts when possible and the eight precepts as a special observance on an Uposatha day, come under Gahaṭṭha Sīla which should be observed by male and female followers.

There are different views on the meaning of the Pāḷi phrase "sati vā ussāhe - 'when possible' of the Visuddhimagga

Some teachers take the view that not only the five precepts but also the ten precepts are to be observed as permanent undertaking. 'They wrongly apply to the ten precepts the attribute of nicca sīla, a "permanent undertaking' which is only meant for the five precepts.

[ 155 ] According to these teachers. "To observe the five precepts, it is not necessary to consider whether a person has the ability; he should observe the five precepts forever. Regarding the ten precepts, even though it is urged that the ten precepts should be observed as a permanent undertaking, only persons with the ability should observe them. The ability means the ability to abandon his treasure of gold and silver with no more attachment to it; giving up his possessions in this manner, he should observe the ten precepts for the whole of his life, not just for some days and months only. If his intention is to avoid handing gold and silver during the period of observance only and to use them again afterwards, then he should not observe them at all.

Again some people erroneously think and say, "It is difficult for people to abandon their own possessions of gold and silver; therefore lay men are not fit to observe the ten precepts." Also according to the Visuddhimagga Mahā Ṭikā, the term 'dasa', 'ten'. should be taken as the ten precepts of sāmaneras. It is commented further that sīla here is meant to be like the sīla observed by Ghaṭikāra the pot-maker and others. This commentarial statement makes for more confusion in the already mistaken view of these people. They take the extreme view that it is not enough for people to merely refrain from acquiring and accepting new wealth; they should be able to abandon all that they have already possessed just as Ghatikāra of the Ghaṭikāra Sutta (Rājavagga Majjhimapaṇṇāsa) refrained from using gold and silver for his whole life. And only when they are like Ghaṭikāra in this respect, they can be fully established in the ten precepts. Thus they have made an overstatement.

To clarify,

Their view is that only when a person can "abandon his treasure of gold and silver with no more attachment to it" he should observe the ten precepts. It is mistaken as it arises with reference to Jātarūpa sikkhāpada of the ten precepts. According to this interpretation, onlywhen people can abandon all the wealth they possess, without clinging [ 156 ] any more, they will be fully established in the precepts. Ghaṭikāra is an Anāgāmi, a 'Non-Returner', who has alrealy abandoned all his wealth without clinging any more. Nowadays, although the laity do not acquire fresh wealth on the day of observance of the ten precepts, they have stored up at home and else where all the wealth they have made previously and so it is against the Jātarūpa sikkhāpada. Hence they should not observe the ten precepts unless they abandon all their wealth with no more attachment. Even if they take the ten precepts, they fail to keep them.

The interpretation of these teachers is not sustainable, because there is for bhikkhus rūpiyasikkhāpada, concerning handling and possession of money which is more subtle and nobler than the Jātarūpa sikkhāpada of the laity. According to that sikkhāpada, a bhikkhu should not accept money nor let others do so for him; if it is left near him in the absence of someone to receive it, he should not remain complacent but raise his objection saying: "Gold and silver is not allowable for bhikkhus; we do not want to accept it." If he does not raise any objection then he commits an offence; and the gold and silver should be abandoned by him too. This is the disciplinary rule laid down by the Bhagavā.

Suppose a dāyaka comes to a bhikkhu and offers money even though the bhikkhu, following the Vinaya rules, forbades him and refuses to accepts it; but he leaves it all the same and goes away; if another dāyaka comes along and the bhikkhu tells him about the money and the dāyaka says: "Then please show me a safe place for keeping the money", the bhikkhu may go up to the seventh terrace of the monastery, taking the dāyaka with him, and says: "Here is a safe place". But he should not say, "Keep it here". However, when the dāyaka has gone away after keeping the money safely in the place shown by the bhikkhu, the bhikkhu can close the door of the room carefully and keep watoh on it. In doing so the bhikkhu is not guilty of infringement of any disciplinary rule, states the Commentary clearly on rūpiya sikkhāpada.

[ 157 ] If possession of gold and silver is not allowable for the laity observing the Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada, it will by no means be allowable for the bhikkhu who observes the subtler and nobler precepts to keep watch on his gold and silver. Thus it should be noted that if such a bhikkhu is free from offence, so is the laity not affected in the observance of the Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada by his possession of wealth left in place of security.

In the Visuddhimagga Mahā Ṭikā, the example of Ghaṭikāra the pot-maker, is not cited to convey the meaning that "the laity should observe the ten precepts only when they can abandon all their wealth without clinging any more like Ghaṭikāra. Actually, the example of Ghaṭikāra, a superior observer of the ten precepts, is cited just to exhort the people not to be content with their ordinary observance of the ten precepts, but that they should make efforts to become observers of a higher type following Ghaṭikāra's example. Even though they cannot be equal to him, the citation is made in order to encourage them to emulate Ghaṭikāra as far as possible.

The authority for this remark is: sīlamayanti niccasīla uposatha niyamādivasena pañca aṭṭha dasa vā sīlāni samādiyantassa as commented in the Itivuttaka Aṭṭhakathā by Acariya Dhammapāla Thera, the author of Visuddhi magga Mahāṭikā. The Commentary mentions three kinds of morality, namely, (i) the five precepts observed permanently (nicca sīla), (ii) the eight precepts observed on uposatha days, (uposatha sīla), and (iii) the ten precepts observed occasionally (niyama sīla). It is clear that, according to this Commentary, the ten precepts are not observed permanently; they are observed occasionally.

Again, in the Sagāthāvagga Saṃyutta Pāḷi, Sakka Saṃyutta, we find the following account. Sakka, King of Devas, came down from Vejayanta Palace to go to the royal garden; when he was about to get onto his chariot he paid homage to the eight directions. Then the Deve Mātali said, "To whom do you pay homage, Sir ?'

[ 158 ] Sakka said:

"Ye gahaṭṭhā puīññakarā,
sīlavanto upasakā,
dhammena dāraṃ posenti,
te namassāmi Mātali".

"Mātali, some people perform meritorious deeds; they are also endowed with morality; they take refuge in the Three Gems of Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṃgha, and they support their wives and children righteously. To them I pay homage".

The term 'Sīlavanto' in the Sakka's reply is explained by the commentator thus: Sīlavanto ti upāsakatthe patiṭṭhāya pañcahi pi dasahi pi sīlehi samannāgatā. Those Who are endowed with morality means those who take refuge in the Three Gems and become established in the five precepts and the ten precepts." (According to this Commentary, it is clear that the people' to whom Sakka, King of Devas, pay homage are the people who, living with their families, observe the five and ten precepts).

Also in the Saṃyutta Sub-Commentary it is commented thus: niccasīlavasena pañcahi niyamavasena dasahi, 'the five precepts should be taken as Nicca Sīla, the ten precepts as Niyama Sila'.

Niyama Sīla.

In the Magadha Dictionary, verse 444, the meaning Niyama Sīla is briefly shown thus: "The morality which must be observed forever is Yama Sīla. The morality which is not observed forever but only occassionally is called Niyama Sīla. The expression, Yama Sīla and Niyama Sīla, has its origin in Brahmanism. (Not harming, not speaking lies, not stealing, not indulging in ignoble sexual act, not accepting alms-food- these five are Yama Sīla which must be observed forever; purifying, being easily content, practising austerity, reciting the Vedas, recollecting the Brahma- these five are Niyama Sīla which should be observed occassionally (Amarakosa Brāhrnana Vagga, v.49.)

[ 159 ] According to the Saīyutta Pāḷi and its Commentary, it is clear that even the people who are supporting their families by right livelihood can observe the ten precepts. Hence the view: "People should observe the ten precepts only when they can abandon their gold and silver without clinging anymore like Ghaṭikāra, the pot-maker" is not a right one; it is merely an overstatement.

Moreover, of the ten duties of a king, mentioned in the Mahāhaṃsa Jātaka of the Asīti Nipāta, the Commentary says that by the term 'sila' is ment both the five and the ten precepts. Therefore it is evident that kings observe also the ten precepts as (one of) their duties. If it is maintained that "the ten precepts should be observed only when they can be observed forever", then kings who have chief queens, lesser queens and maids of honour and a treasury filled with gold and silver would not be able to observe the ten precepts because of the Abrahma cariya and Jātarūpa Sikkhāpadas. Had it been impossible for kings to observe, then the Commentator would not have included the ten precepts in his comment on sīla of the ten kingly duties. But the Commentator has definitely mentioned them in his comment. Therefore the ten precepts are not nicca sīla; they are the morality to be observed whenever one is able to do so.

Moreover, the Khuddakapāṭha Commentary explains how the eight precepts are derived from the ten Sikkhāpadas: "Of the ten precepts⁸, the first two, Pānātipāta Sikkhāpada and Adinnādāna Sikkhāpada, are to be observed by the laity or sāmaṇeras as nicca sīla. (The third precept, Abrahmacariya Sikkhāpada, is not mentioned as Nicca Sīla for the laity. It is the precept to be observed only when one is able to do so.) Again, out of the ten precepts, the seventh one, namely, Naccagita Sikkhāpada and the eighth one, namely, Mālāīgandha Sikkhāpada merge as one factor, the last Sikkhāpada of Jātarūpa is excluded.

[ 160 ] In accordance with this Commentary also, those out of the ten precepts which the laity should observe permanently are four, namely, refraining from killing, stealing, telling lies and taking intoxicants. The laity cannot always oberve Abrahmacariya Sikkhapada. They are also unable to observe permanently the precepts of Vikālabhojana, Naccagīta, etc., Thus it is clear that all these ten precepts are Niyama type of Sīla to be observed only when able.

Although it is mentioned in the Khuddaka Pāṭha Commentary that Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada is a special precept for sāmaṇeras, breaking it will not entail falling from novicehood. Because in the Mahākhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahāvagga Pāḷi, the Exalted One laid down the ten liṅgas (factors) which will make the novices fall from their novicehood only the first five from the ten precepts are included in the ten liṅgas. The last five are not included. Therefore, inspite of breaking one of these last five factors, the novices will not fall from their novicehood; they are only guilty of breach of the rules which entail due punishment. If they take the punishment imposed by their teachers in the form of carrying sand, water, etc., they will become again good novices, duly absolved from guilt.

Thus, even sāmaṇeras for whom the ten precepts are mandatory will not fall from their novicehood inspite of the Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada. It is clear, therefore, that of the ten precepts the last five are not so important as the first five for sāmaṇeras. Thus it is not proper to say and write very seriously exhorting strict observance of the Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada for the laity when it is not regarded as very important even for sāmaṇeras.

It is accepted that both the Visuddhimagga and the Khuddakapāṭha Commentary are written by the Venerable Mahā Buddhaghosa. As the two books are written by one and the same author, the exposition should not be different. The passage from the Visuddhimagga: upāsākanaṃ nicsīlavasena pañca sikkhāpadāni sati vā ussāhe dasa, "The ten. precepts are not Nicca Sīla for the laity; they are Niyama Sīla to be observed only when able" should thus be noted to be in line with the Khuddakapāṭha and Itivuttaka Commentaries.

[ 161 ] With respect to breach of precepts the Khuddakapatha Commentary after dealing with matters concerning novices states: "Whereas, in the case of the laity, after taking the vow of the five precepts, if one of them is broken, only that one is broken; and if that one be observed by taking a new vow, the five precepts are complete again. But some teachers (apare) maintain thus: 'If the five precepts be taken separately, i.e. one after another, breach of one will not cause the breach of the rest'. However, if they say, at the beginning of taking precepts, "pañcaṅga samannāgataṃ sīlaṃ samādiyāmi', "I vow to observe the complete five precepts", then, if one of them is broken, all are broken; because the vow was initially taken to keep the precepts together. As to the result of breach of precepts, each breach will have its own consequences, not affecting others.

But some teachers rationalize this view by saying that after vowing to observe the complete five precepts, if one of them is broken, all are not broken; others remain unaffected. If we thus accept this rationalization, there will be no difference at all in their views. In this connection, the Sikkhāpada Vibhaṅga of the Sammohavinodanī states:

"Gahaṭṭhā yaṃ yaṃ vitikkamanti, taṃ tadeva khandaṃ hoti bhijjati, avasesaṃ na bhijjati, kasmā gahaṭṭhā hi anibaddhasilā honti, yam yam sakkonti,tam tadeva gopenti - After taking the precepts, if the lay men break one of them, only that one is broken; the rest are not. Because for the laity there is no mandatory permanent precepts to observe like novices. Of the five precepts, they may observe whichever they can; one, two or three, but not necessarity all the five. We should not say that because they observe only partially and not the complete five precepts it does not amount to observance of the precepts and that they will not get any merit for it."

It should be noted thus that even though the laity cannot observe all five precepts but only as many as possible. they will get merit and that their Sīla is genuine. In this connection, the Paṭisambhidāmagga Commentary [ 162 ] comments on Pariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla (this morality is described fully under morality in groups of fives). There are two kinds of limit regarding Sīla, namely, the limit to the number of precepts observed and the limit to the duration of observance. The laity may observe one precept, or two, three, four, five, eight or ten precepts. But the trainees (sikkhamāna sāmaṇera and sāmaṇeri) have to observe the ten precepts in full. This is the limit to the number of precepts observed.

The essential meaning here is: If the laity take precepts numbering one, two, three, four, five, eight or ten and observed them properly, his morality will become Sikkhāpada Pariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla, a pure one with the limit in number.

Therefore, although in practice one does not vow to take one, two, three or four, but all five precepts, it is not mandatory to observe all of them. If they can observe only one precept, they should observe that one. If they can observe two, they should observe those two; and so on.

It may be questioned when the laity have the right to observe any number of precepts they wish, why the five precepts alone are prescribed in the Visuddhimagga thus: upāsakopāsikānaṃ niccasīlavasena paññca sikkhāpadāni?'

The answer is that the Commentary is here concerned mainly with the principle of morality, which requires that all the five precepts must be observed permanently, "niccasīlavasena pañca sikkhāpadāni". We have no right to leave out any precept we wish. It will be a guilt to break any one of the five precepts. It is not only in the Visuddhimagga but also in other texts that the five precepts are shown as Nicca Sīla in the light of the principle of morality.

Brahmacariya-Pañcama Sīla.

In addition to the five, eight and ten precepts, there is also Brahmacariya-Pañcama Sīla observed by the laity. However, that Brahmacariya Pañcama Sīla is in reality [ 163 ] the five precepts. The third precept of the original five, "Kāmesu micchā cārā veramaṇi - sikkhapadam samādiyāmi" is replaced by "Abrahmacariyā veramaṇi-sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi" to observe Brahmacariya-Pañcama Sīla.

The Branmacariya-Pañcama Sīla was observed at the time of Buddha Kassapa by Gavesi Upāsaka. (Anguttara Nipāta, Pañcaka Nipāta, 3. Upāsaka Vagga, 13. Gavesi Sutta.) At the time of Buddha Gotama this Sīla was observed by Ugga the Banker of Vesāli and Ugga the Banker of Hatthigāma, Vajjian Country. (Aṅguttara Nikaya, Aṭṭhaka Nipāta, 3. Gahapati Vagga, 1 Sutta and 2 Sutta.) The two Uggas took the Brahmacariya-Pañcama Sīla from the Exalted One and kept observing them; of the four wives they each possessed, the eldest ones were given away in marriage to the men they loved and the remaining ones were also abandoned likewise and thereafter they remained single for life; they were lay 'Non-Returners'. It should not be misunderstood that married persons who want to observe the Bhahmacariya Sīla at the present time have to abandon their wives without any more attachment to them. In other words it should not be taken that they may not observe, this Sīla unless they are prepared to renounce their wives altogether. Because in the words of the Khuddakapāṭha Commentary mentioned above, of the ten precepts only four, namely, Pānātipāta, Adinnādāna, Musāvāda, and Surāmeraya, are regarded as Nicca Sīla". Hence it is evident that Abrahmacariya Sikkhāpada and the remaining precepts such as Vikālabhojana etc., are not Nicca Sīla; they are Niyama Sīla to be observed occassionally. Even though they cannot observe the precepts exactly like Ghaṭikāra the Pot-Maker, they can observe them as Niyama Sīla as far as possible. So also, with regard to Brahmacariya Pañcama Sīla the two Uggas, being 'Non-Returners', abandoned their wives without anymore attachment, and observed the precepts for life, If other people can foIlow their example and observe this precept it is well and good; but if they cannot emulate them fully, they should observe the precept only according to their ability.

[ 164 ] Brahmacariya-Pañcama Ekabhattika Sīla.

Furthermore, there is yet Brahmacariya Pañcama Ekabhattika Sīla (or Ekabhattika Sīla). Ekabhattika means taking only one meal a day in the morning. So, if lay people want to observe this Sīla, they may after making the vow of Brahmacariya-Pañcama precepts take one more precept by saying "Vikālabhojanā veramaṇi-sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi" Or if they wish to take the vow as a whole they may do so by saying: "Brahmacariya pañcama Ekabhattikasilaṃ samādiyāmi". This sīla was observed by Dhammika Upasaka and Nandamatā Upāsikā etc., at the time of the Exalted One according to the Dhammika Sutta of the Suttanipāta Commentary. At the time of Buddha Kassapa, Gavesi Upāsaka also observed this Sīla; so did five hundred laymen. (Aṅguttara Nikāya pañcaka nipāta, 3. upāsaka vagga, 10. Gavesi Sutta.)

Aṭṭhaṅga Uposatha Sīla.

It may be questioned why, regarding the five precepts, the term 'pañca' alone is used, and, regarding the ten precepts, the term 'dasa' is used; whereas in describing the eight precepts not only the term 'attha' but the additional term uposatha' is used? "

The term Uposatha has five meanings, namely,

(a) Recitation of Pātimokkha,
(b) Proper name for persons or animals,
(c) Observance,
(d) The Sīla which should be observed, and
(e) The day for observing Sīla.

Of these five, the first meaning (a) is concerned only with the bhikkhu; and the second meaning (b), being the name for a prince (e.g. Prince Uposatha) or of an elephant (e.g. Uposatha Elephant) etc., has no connection with the Chapter on Sīla; only the remaining three meanings are to be considered here.

[ 165 ] The three meanings are derived from the Pāḷi term upavasa' which means observing or fulfilling the precepts. The third meaning (c) is the act of observing the precepts. The fourth meaning (d) is the precepts, which should be kept. The fifth meaning (e) is the day on which the precepts are kept.

No particular day was fixed by the virtuous people in the past for observance of the five precepts and the ten precepts; only the eight precepts were observed on specially fixed day. Hence the special epithet of Uposatha for these eight precepts.

There is another point to consider. The five precepts are not as numerous as the eight precepts and as they are to be kept everyday no special day was named for their observance. But as the ten precepts are higher than the eight precepts the virtuous people in the past should have fixed a special day for their observance; then why had they not done so ? The probable reason is that the eight precepts are specially suitable for the laity whereas the ten precepts are not. According to the Visuddhimagga the ten precepts are for sāmaṇeras and sāmaṇeris; the Khuddakapaṭha Commentary also states that the last one, Jātarūpa Sikkhāpada, of the ten precepts, is a special one for sāmaṇeras. It is, therefore, evident that the ten precepts are specifically for sāmaṇeras, not for laymen.

Therefore, the learned and virtuous in the past selected, out of the two kinds of Sīla which concerned them, the eight precepts which are of a higher form, to be observed on a specially appointed day. Only the eight precepts are therefore called Uposatha as explained in the Visuddhimagga.

The virtuous are not content with the observance of Sīla only; they also wish to make meritorious deeds through giving alms which entail acquiring, buying, shopping of things to offer. Consequently they cannot properly observe the Jātarūpa-rajata Sikkhāpada. Therefore the ancient people fixed a special day for observance of the eight precepts only.

[ 166 ] Navaṅga Uposatha.

In the Aṅguttara Nikāya (Navaka Nipāta, 2. Sihanāda Vagga, 8. Sutta) an exposition on Navaṅga Uposatha Sīla is given with this introduction: "The nine precepts are beneficial, advantageous, powerful". In enumerating them, the Exalted One expounds the usual eight precepts from the Pāṇātipāta Sikkhāpada up to Uccāsayana-Mahāsayana Sikkhāpada, but ends up with the formula for practice of loving-kindness thus: mettā sahagatena cetasā ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharāmi, 'I abide with thoughts of loving-kindness directed to beings in one direction'.

According to the discourse, to keep the Navaṅga Uposatha Sīla, after taking the usual eight precepts, one keeps on developing Loving-kindness. A man who observes the eight precepts without any breach and keeps on developing loving-kindness is called an observer of the nine precepts. Loving - kindness is to be developed whereas Sīla is to be observed. Therefore to practise the nine precepts one need not recite the nine precepts when taking the vow. It is sufficient to take the usual eight precepts and to develop loving-kindness as much as possible; then one is said to be practising the nine precepts (Navaṅga Uposatha).

With regard to loving-kindness, as the Exalted One particularly mentions 'ekaṃ disaṃ', diffusing loving-kindness with one direction in mind is more effective than doing so without minding the direction. One should direct one's thought to all beings in the ten directions (the four cardinal points, the four intermediate points, plus above and below) one after another beginning from whichever direction one wishes.

Even though there are four sublime mental states⁹, the Exalted One takes only loving- kindness and adds it to the eight, thus prescribing the nine precepts because loving-kindness has a great power. That is why the [ 167 ] Exalted One has expounded the Mettā Sutta in the Khuddakapāṭha and the Suttanipāta.

Also, in the Aṅguttara Nikāya, (Ekādasaka Nipāta, 1. Anussati vagga, 5. Sutta), 'are expounded the eleven advantages that accrue repeatedly to him who develops loving-kindness:

(a) he sleeps well in peace,
(b) he wakes up well in peace,
(c) he dreams no bad dreams,
(d) he is dearly loved by human beings,
(e) he is dearly loved by non-human beings (ogres and petas),
(f) he is protected by Devas.
(g) he is not afflicted by fire, poison and weapons,
(h) his mind is easily concentrated.
(i) his face is calm and clear,
(j) he dies unconfused, and
(k) if he cannot penetrate higher Dhamma, Arahattamagga and Phala, in this life, he will take rebirth in the Brahma world.

Therefore it is clear that loving-kindness is more powerful than the other three sublime mental states.

Three kinds of Uposatha Sīla.

Uposatha Sīla is of three kinds:

(1) Gopāla Uposatha- The Cowherd's Uposatha
(2) Nigaṇṭha Uposatha- The Naked Ascetic's Uposatha
(3) Ariya Uposatha- The Noble One's Uposatha

as expounded by the Exalted One in the Aṅguttara Nikaya (Ṭika nipāta, 2. Mahā vagga, 10. Visakhuposatha Sutta.) The essential meanings are-

[ 168 ] (1) The Uposatha Sīla observed with thoughts of a cowherd is called Gopāla Uposatha. After grazing the cattle all day long, the cowherd returns them to the owner in the evening. On reaching home he thinks only in this way: "Today I have grazed the cattle in such-and-such a field and taken them to water at such-and-such a place. Tomorrow I'll take them to such-and-such a field for food and to such-and-such a place for water". Similarly, the observer of Uposatha Sīla, having greedy thoughts of food, thinks, "Today I have taken such-and-such a kind of food. Tomorrow, I'll take such-and-such a kind." If he spends the day thus like the cowherd, his Uposatha is called Gopāla Uposatha.

(2) The Uposatha Sīla observed by a naked ascetic who holds wrong views is called Nigantha Uposatha. For example, according to their practice with regard to Pānātipāta precept, killing living beings beyond a distance of one hundred yojana east, west, north and south must not be done. Within such-and-such a distance killing is allowed, thus giving a chance of committing evil. Differentiation between forbidden and unforbidden places for doing wrong they practise their uposatha. The uposatha practised by the holders of such a view is called Nigantha Uposatha.

(3) If the Uposatha is observed after purifying the mind of defilements through recollection of special attributes of the Buddha etc., it is called Ariya Uposatha. The Ariya Uposatha again is of six kinds:

(a) Brahmuposatha-Noble¹⁰ Uposatha
(b) Dhammuposatha-Dhamma Uposatha
(c) Saṃghuposatha-Saṃgha Uposatha
(d) Sīluposatha-Sīla Uposatha
(e) Devatuposatha-Devata Uposatha
(f) Aṭṭhaṅguposatha-Uposatha with the eight precepts.

[ 169 ] (a) The uposatha that is observed by taking the eight precepts and repeatedly recollecting special attributtes of the Buddha such as Arahaṃ etc., is called Brahuposatha-

(b) The uposatha that is observed by taking the eight precepts and repeatedly recollecting special attributes of the Dhamma is called Dhammuposatha.

(c) The uposatha that is observed by taking the eight precepts and repeatedly recollecting special attributes of the Saṃgha is called Saṃghuposatha.

(d) The uposatha that is observed by taking the eight precepts, observing without breaking any of them and repeatedly recollecting special attributes of sīla is called Siluposatha.

(e) Reflecting that "there are in the world Devas and Brahmas who have endowed themselves with noble qualities of pure faith, morality, learning, generosity, and wisdom in their previous births and as a result are reborn in the realm of Devas and Brahmas; such noble qualities are present in me, too", one observes the Uposatha comparing himself with Devatās. Such Uposatha is called Devat uposatha. (Here Devatā stands for both Devas and Brahmas.)

(f) After taking the eight precepts, one reflects thus: "Just as Arahants never kill or harm any living being and always have compassion for them, so also I do not kill or harm any living being and have compassion for them; by this practice, I am following the way of Arahants.' The uposatha observed in this manner reflecting on each of the eight precepts is called Aṭṭhaṅguposatha.

It should be noted that the division of uposatha into the three and the six kinds is in reference to the manner of keeping it. Primarily, however, the sīla which is observed is of two kinds only, Atthaṅga Uposatha Sīla and Navariga Uposatha Sīla as already stated above.

Three Kinds of Uposatha Day.

(1) Pakati Uposatha,
(2) Paṭijāgara Uposatha, and
(3) Pāṭihāriya Uposatha.

[ 170 ] This classification is made in the light of the Anguttara Nikaya (Tika Nipāta, 4. Devadutadvagga, 7. Raja Sutta, etc.), which says: "uposatham upavasanti patijagaronti" and

cātuddasim pancaddasim,
yā ca pakkhassa atthami,
pātihāriya pakkhañ ca, atthanga susamāgatam.

(1) Pakati Uposatha, 'Ordinary Uposatha Day.

In the said Pāḷi verse, the lines reading "cātuddasim pañaddasim., yā ca pakkhassa atthami" refer to ordinary Uposatha Days. In accordance with this, each fortnight of a month, waxing or waning, has three Uposatha Days, namely, the eighth, the fourteenth and the fifteenth days; therefore a month has six Uposatha Days, which are called ordinary Uposatha Days. In the Commentary, however, the waxing fortnight has four Uposatha Days, namely, the fifth, the eighth, the fourteenth and the fifteenth waxing days; the waning fortnight, has four Uposatha Day, too, namely, the fifth, the eighth, the forteenth and the fifteenth waning days; altogether there are eight Uposatha Days in a month. These eight are ordinary Uposatha Days usually observed by the laity.

(Whereas nowadays the lay people observe only four Uposatha Days in each month. These are the eighth waxing, the full-moon, the eighth waning and the new-moon days.)

(2) Paṭijāgara Uposatha, "Pre-and Post-Uposatha Days".

Paṭijāgara Uposatha means the eight ordinary Uposatha Days observed with one additional day before and after each of them. (Paṭi means 'repeatedly'; Jāgara means 'waking'. Therefore Paṭijāgara Sīla may be interpreted as morality which repeatedly wakes up from the slumber of defilements) To calculate the number of days: the fifth waxing Uposatha day is preceded by the fourth waxing and followed by the sixth waxing Uposatha Days; the eighth Uposatha Day is preceded by the seventh waxing and followed by the ninth waxing Uposatha Days; the fortnight [ 171 ] waxing Uposatha Day is preceded by the thirteenth waxing Uposatha Day (but there is not Uposatha Day to follow); the full-moon day is not preceded by an Uposatha Day but is followed by the first waning Uposatha Day. Hence, serially there are the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, the seventh, the eighth, the ninth, the thirteeenth, the forteenth waxing, the full-moon and the first waning days. Thus there are ten days in the waxing fortnight and ten days in the waning fortnight of the month, making altogether eight Pakati Uposatha and twelve Paṭijāgara Uposatha Days in a month.

(3) Paṭihāriya Uposatha.

The Uposatha which is more powerful than the Paṭijāgara is called Pāṭihāriya. Paṭijāgara Uposatha has intervening days in the waxing and waning fortnight. Pāṭihāriya Uposatha has no such days, Sīla being observed continuously.

If the laity want to observe Pāṭihāriya Uposatha, they should observe for the whole three months of Vassa (rains-retreat) without a break. If they cannot observe for the whole three months, they should do so for one month from the full moon of Thadingyut (October) to the full moon of Tazaungmon (November). If they cannot observe for one month, they should do so for fifteen days from the full moon to the new moon of Thadingyut. This is stated in the Aṅguttara Nikāya Commentary.

However, according to the Sutta Nipāta Aṭṭakhatha (the Dhammika Sutta of the Cūla Vagga), the Uposatha observed for five months (Waso, Wagoung, Tawthalin, Thadingyut, Tazaungmon) without break is Pāṭihāriya Uposatha; whereas other teachers say that the Uposatha observed for each of the three months of Waso, Tazaungmon and Tabaung without break is called Pāṭihāriya Uposatha. Still other teachers say that, according to Pāḷi Texts, there are three Pakati Uposatha Days, namely, the eighth, the fourteenth and the fifteenth of each fortnight of a month. If, in addition to those three Pakati Uposatha Days. four more days, namely, the seventh before the eighth and the ninth after the eighth, the thirteenth before the [ 172 ] fourteenth and the first day after the fifteenth are observed, such Uposatha is called Pāṭihāriya Uposatha. The Commentator remarks that for the benefit of the good people who wish to acquire good merit all kinds of Sīla are mentioned to enable them to observe whichever they like.

Of the three views shown in the Suttanipāta Aṭṭhakatha, the Commentator's own view, "the Uposatha observed for five months is Pāṭihāriya Uposatha," agrees in essence with the Aṅguttara Commentary. where the period of continuous observance is shown as three months; whereas in the SuttaNipāta Commentary, it is five months. That is the only difference.

The third view from the Suttanipāta Commentary is in agreement with that of the Commentaries on the Nemi Jātaka, Vimānavatthu (Uttara Vimānavatthu), the Theragāthā and the Suruci Jātaka of the Pakinnaka Nipāta.

However, according to the Sagathavagga of the Saṃyutta Aṭṭhakathā (Indaka Vagga, 5. Sutta) the Pāṭihāriya Uposatha Days in each fortnight of the month are the seventh, the ninth, the thirteenth, and the first waning or waxing day after the fifteenth and the half month after vassa, i.e. from the first waning to the newmoon day of Thadingyut.

Herein, there is one thing to consider: Even though the Commentaries on the Aṅguttara, the Suttanipāta, the Jātaka, and the Saṃyutta are written by the same Commentator, Ven'ble Mahā Buddhaghosa, why are they different from one another regarding Uposatha Days?

That the Buddha actually described the three kinds of uposatha is clear from the Visakh uposath Sutta, but there is no Sutta delivered by the Buddha to set aside specific days, three or six, as Uposatha Days. The fourteenth Uposatha, the fifteenth Uposatha, the eighth Uposatha, Pāṭihāriya Uposatha mentioned before are not prescribed by the Exatled One as days of Uposatha observance. Indeed, it was Sakka, king of Devas, who said to Tāvatiṃsa Deities, "People observe uposatha on the fourteenth, the fifteenth, and the eighth. On the Days called Pāṭihāriya, too, they observe Uposatha." He was given this information by [ 173 ] Catumahārajika who went round in the Human world preparing a list of the virtuous. The Buddha was only reproducing the words of Sakka. The classification of the fourteenth, the fifteenth and the eighth uposatha days is merely a statement of the Uposatha days traditionally observed by people. There is no special discourse expounded by the Exalted One to enjoin. Uposatha must be observed on these days or must not be observed on other days.

Thus the fourteenth, the fifteenth, the eighth Uposatha days were the days of uposatha observance prescribed by the ancient people. So traditionally there were only three Pakati Uposatha days, but later on people observed the fifth day also and therefore there come to be four Uposatha days in each fortnight of a month. Thus the fifth Uposatha day is mentioned in the Commentary. Nowadays people observe only four Uposatha in a month.

The Buddha did not prescribe any specific Uposatha day because people can observe the precepts on whichever day they like. In mentioning Paṭijāgara and Pāṭihāriya Uposatha days as special days for observance, the Commentators are merely recording the various customary practices of the people. Hence these seeming differences in the Commentaries.

Moreover, the Aṅguttara, the Suttanipāta, the Saṃyuttta and the Jātaka which make expositions of Sīla are known as the Suttanta Desanā, the teachings in discourses; they are also known as Vohāra Desanā because in these discourses the Buddha, who is incomparable in the usage of the world, employs the terms and expressions of the people which can never be uniform. Thus, with regard to different classifications of Uposatha, as all are meant to develop good merit, it is not necessary to decide which view is right and which view is wrong. In the Suttanipāta Commentary the three views are described advising readers to accept whichever they like.

Sīla-observers select suitable days which they prefer and observe uposatha accordingly in many ways. And all their observance develops merits; so the Commentators [ 174 ] write recording the ways employed by the people. In the Discourses, Suttanta Desanā, even the Buddha expounded following the usages of the people. Why did the Exalted One expound in this manner? Because he wished them not to violate their traditional customs which are not demeritorious.

The principal objective of the Exalted One is to expound only such Realities as mind and matter (Nāma-rūpa Paramattha Dhamma) that would facilitate attainment of the Paths, Fruition States and Nibbāna. Teaching in such abstruse terms could be beneficial to those with right perception. But it could make those lacking it to commit wrong deeds which would lead them to the four lower worlds. For example, those who have wrong perception of Nāma-rūpa Dhamma would think thus: "In this world there is Nāma-rūpa only; there is neither 'I' nor 'others'; if there is no 'others' there will be no harm in killing them: and there will be neither 'mine' nor 'others'; therefore there will be no harm in stealing things, in committing adultery, etc., In this manner, they will freely break the rules of society and do such unwholesome acts which will cause rebirths in the lower planes of existence.

In terms of Ultimate Truth (Paramattha Sacca) there is neither 'I' nor 'others', neither 'man' nor 'woman', etc.; there are only aggregates of Nāma-rūpa (mental and physical phenomena). For those incapable of understanding the terms of Ultimate Truth, the Buddha employed terms of Conventional Truth (Samuti Sacca) in giving Discourses (Suttanta Desanā). Though all is a mass of Nāma and Rūpa, by conventional-usage it is determined for easy discrimination that such-and-such a mass is 'I' such and such a mass is 'they', such-and-such a mass is 'mother', 'father', etc., If people deviate the norm set up by conventional usages, they will go astray doing wrong deeds. It is to prevent them from falling to the lower planes of existence as a consequence of their misdeeds that the Buddha teaches the discourses in conventional terms.

If, however. only Discourses were delivered, people would take such term as 'I', 'they', 'my son', 'my daughter', [ 175 ] 'my wife', 'my property' etc., as Ultimate Realities and their belief in Permanent Personality. (Sakkāya-Diṭṭhi) would become so great that they would not attain Magga Phala and Nibbāna.

Hence the teaching of Nāma-Rūpa Paramattha Dhamma by the Buddha.

Some teachers write: "In the Vinaya Piṭaka there is an injunction for bhikkhus not to observe 'bhikkhu uposatha' (recitation of Pātimokkha rules) on non-uposatha days; if they do so, they commit the offence of Dukkaṭa Apatti Likewise, laymen should not observe the eight precepts on non-uposatha days."

Such writing shows they are not accomplished in interpreting the teaching of the Buddha. Vinaya Desanā is called Ānādesanā in Buddhist literature; it means the authoritative injunction laid down by the Exalted One. If a bhikkhu commits even with good intention a forbidden act, he is guilty because he goes against the command of the Exalted One and transgresses the rules of the Vinaya. To assume that such a Vinaya rule is also applicable to laymen in their observance of uposatha, to say that people must not observe precepts on non-uposatha days and that doing so will be an offence, is a clear misinterpretation of the Desanā. In brief, Uposatha being a pure and noble observance can be fulfilled on any day. The more it is observed the greater will be the beneficial results.

Therefore, the Sub-commentary on the Mahā Sudassana Sutta of the Mahā Vagga, Dīgha Nikāya, says: "uposathaṃ vuccati atthaṅgasamannāgataṃ sabbadivasesu gahaṭṭhehi rakkhitabbasīlaṃ-uposatha is said to be the sīla with eight factors that can be observed by laymen on all days." (This Sub-commentary is written by the Ven. Dhammapāla who has also written the Anuṭikā, the Sub-commentary of the Mūlatikā, the Visuddhimagga-Mahāṭikā, the Itivuttaka Aṭṭhakathā, etc., and other Sub-commentaries.)

Here ends Bhikkhu Sīla, Bhikkhuni Sīla,
Anupasampanna Sīla and Gahaṭṭha Sīla,

[ 176 ] Again:

(3) morality is of four kinds:

(a) Pakati Sīla,
(b) Ācāra Sīla,
(c) Dhammatā Sīla and
(d) Pubbahetu Sīla.

(a) Non-transgression of the five precepts by inhabitants of the Northern Continent is called Pakati sīla. (By nature, these inhabitants refrain from wrong deeds such as killing, etc., without taking the vow of the five precepts.) Non-breaking of the five precepts by them is not a matter of restraint through a vow (Samadana-viratī), but of natural restraint even when transgression is demanded by circumstances (Sampatta-viratī).

(b) Following traditional practices of one's family, locality or sect is called Ācāra Sīla. (Refraining from evil because it is done so by one's ancestry is called Kula Ācāra; refraining from evil because it is generally done so in one's locality is called Desa Ācāra; refraining from evil because it is done so in one's sect is called Pāsaṇda sīla.)

(c) The kind of sīla kept by the mother of a Bodhisatta since she conceived her son, by virtue of which she has no thought for man, is called Dhammatā sīla. (A Bodhisatta's mother regularly observes the five precepts and desires no man not even her husband, from the moment of conception. This is because an extremely Noble Being, the Bodhisatta, is lying in her womb. As the sīla is kept as a rule by the mother of a Bodhisatta, it is called Dhammatā Sīla.)

(d) The observance of sīla by chaste persons such as the youth Pippali (who later became Mahā Kassapa) and the Bodhisatta like King Mahāsīlava through natural inclination and without anyone's instruction is called Pubbahetu Sīla. (As a result of habitual observance of sīla in their former births, they are by nature inclined to observe sīla in this life.)

Again:

[ 177 ] (4) Sīla is of four kinds:

(a) Pātimokkhasaṃvara sīla,
(b) Indriyasaṃvara sīla,
(c) Ājīvapārisuddhi sīla, and
(d) Paccayasannissita sīla.

These four are chiefly concerned with the bhikkhu. When the Bodhisatta, Sumedha the Hermit, reflected on the Perfection of Morality, he said to himself: "tath'eva vam catūsu bhūmīsu, sīlāni paripūraya", "likewise, you should become accomplished in the four realms of sīla."

(a) Pātimokkhasaṃvara sīla.

The Sīla that liberates its observer from suffering of the four lower worlds is called Pātimokkhasaṃvara sīla. (pāti-observer; mokkha-to set free)

The observer of this Sīla (i) should have proper conduct, (ii) should have blameless, wholesome resorts, (iii) should see great danger in the slightest fault; the offence may be small like a particle of dust but one should see in it a danger as big as Mount Meru which has a height of one hundred and sixty-eight thousand yojanās above and under water and (iv) should observe and practise the precepts properly.

To explain further:

(i) In the world there is Ācāra Dhamma that should be practised, and there is Anācāra Dhamma that should not be practised. The three wrong physical actions (killing, stealing and unlawful sexual intercourse) and the four wrong speeches (telling lies, backbiting, abusing and babbling), altogether seven wrong doings (duccarita), and other deeds that cause breach of Sīla constitute Anācāra.

To give some examples of unwholesome actions that would cause breach of Sīla: in the world some bhikkhus earn their living by making gifts of bamboo, leaves, [ 178 ] flowers, fruits, soap powder, tooth sticks to the laity; they degrade themselves by approving of the wrong speeches of the laity, flattering them to gain favour, telling much falsehood mixed with a little truth just like a lot of uncooked peas mixed with a few cooked ones in a pot. They look after children of the laity as nurse-maids, embracing them, dressing them, etc.; they serve as messengers running errands for their lay supporters; they give medical treatment to laity, look after their properties, exchange food and beverage with them. Such wrong livelihood as well as every other resort of wrong livelihood condemmed by the Buddha are called Anācāra Dhamma.

It is improper for the bhikkhu to give bamboo, leaves, etc., even if the laity come and ask for their use; more so, therefore, when they are not asked for. Such acts of giving are not the business of bhikkhus. If they do so, they would be destroying the faith of the laity (kuladūsana) in the Vinaya

In this connection it might be asked whether the laity's faith would not be destroyed if the bhikkhu does not give them what they want, or whether, if the bhikkhu gave them what they want, their faith would develop with the thought, "this is the bhikkhu who satisfies our needs." The laity's faith in the bhikkhu as a disciple of the Exalted One has been genuine and pure even before receiving gifts from the bhikkhu; after their receipt, the laity will see him as the giver of bamboo, the giver of leaves, etc., and as a result attachment will arise in them. Therefore, their faith in the bhikkhu becomes tainted with attachment. The genuine faith has been destroyed. Accordingly the Exalted One has condemned the giving of gifts by the bhikkhu, naming such act as Kuladūsana, 'despoilment of the laity's faith'.

All practices which are the opposite of the aforesaid Anācāra are Ācāra practices which should be cultivated.

(ii) Resort is of two kinds, namely, wrong resort and right resort.

[ 179 ] Wrong resort: some bhikkhus in the teaching of the Buddha have intimate dealings with prostitutes, widows, divorced women, spinsters, eunuchs and bhikkhunis. They frequent ale houses unbecoming for a bhikkhu; they mingle with kings, ministers; heretics and their followers like ordinary laymen. They associate with people who have no faith and who abuse and threaten the disciples of the Buddha, bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, male and female lay devotees-and who wish them ill. All these intimate associates of bhikkhus and places frequented by them are wrong resort for bhikkhus.

Wrong resorts' here refers to unwholesome friendship and association and to place improper for bhikkhus to visit. But if a prostitute invites bhikkhus to offer alms, they can go and receive it maintaining steadfast mindfulness. Herein, prostitutes, widows, divorced women, spinsters, eunuchs and bhikkhunis are regarded as unwholesome resorts, because they form the bases of five sensual pleasures. Ale houses, taverns etc., are dangerous to the noble practice of Dhamma. Association with kings and ministers are also not beneficial; offerings made by them may prove destructive like a thunderbolt. And the houses where there is no faith, where people are abusive and threatening are unwholesome resorts because they discourage faith and cause fear in the bhikkhu.

People and places as opposed to those described above constitute the bhikkhu's wholesome resort. Some laymen have faith and confidence in the Triple Gem; they believe also in Kamma and its results; they are like wells or lakes where the bhikkhu may enjoy inexhaustible supply of water. Their houses are brightened by the colour of the robes of bhikkhus who visit them frequently. The atmosphere of such a place is filled with the breeze caused by movements of bhikkhus. Here people wish them well, wish for the welfare of bhikkhus, bhikkhunis and male and female lay devotees; such a house is a wholesome resort for bhikkhus.

To explain still further: Ācāra, Anācāra and Gocara: Anācāra, means improper conduct.

[ 180 ] There are two kinds of improper conduct (Anācāra), namely, improper bodily conduct (Kāyika Anācāra)and improper verbal conduct (Vacasika Anācāra).

Improper bodily conduct:

After entering the Order, a bhikkhu acts disrespectfully towards the Saṃgha; he stands jostling the Elders, sits jostling them, stands or sits in front of them, takes a seat higher than that of the Elders, sits with his head covered with the robe, speaks while standing, waves his hands while talking, walks with the footwear on while the Elders are walking bare foot, takes a higher path while the Elders are taking a lower path, walks on a path while the Elders are walking on the ground, sits pushing the Elders, stands pushing them and give no place to the younger bhikkhus; (at the bath house) he puts faggots into stove without permission of the Elders and closes the door; (at the bathing place) he pushes the Elders and gets into the water in front of them, pushes them and bathes before they do, comes out jostling them before they do, and goes before them overtaking the Elders ahead of him; on reaching the village and town, he hurries into the laity's private and secret chambers and ladies' rooms; he strokes children's heads (showing signs of fondness). This is called improper bodily conduct (Kāyika Anācāra).

Improper verbal conduct:

After entering the Order, a bhikkhu acts disrespectfully towards the Saṃgha; he talks about Dhamma without asking for permission of the Elders, answers questions, recites the Patimokkha without permission; talks while standing, waves his hands while talking. On reaching the village and town, without restraining himself, he speaks to the women or young girls: "You so and so of such and such a family, what do you have? Is there rice gruel? Is there cooked rice? Is there hard food to eat? What shall we drink? What hard food shall we eat? What sort of food shall we eat? What will you offer me?" etc., This is called improper verbal conduct (Vacasika Anācāra.)

[ 181 ] Ācāra, proper conduct.

Ācāra should be understood as the reverse of the said Anācāra, improper conduct. Furthermore, a bhikkhu is reverential, obedient, possessed of shame and conscience, wears his lower robe properly, wears his upper robe properly, his manners inspire reverential faith whether moving forwards or backwords, looking sideways, bending or stretching, his eyes are downcast, he guards the doors of his sense-faculties; he knows the fight measure in eating, strives to be always wakeful, possesses mindfulness with full comprehension, he wants little, he is easily contented, he is strenuous in the practice of wholesome Dhamma, observes with meticulous care the Abhisamācārika Sīla described above. This is called proper conduct (Ācāra).

Gocara, proper resort.

Gocara is of three kinds:-Upanissaya Gocara, the resort that serves as a powerful support for one's moral developments; Ārakkha Gocara, the resort that serves as a guardian of the mind, and Upanibandha Gocara, the resort that serves as an anchor of the mind.

(1) A good friend who always uses the ten kinds of right speech conducive to liberation from Samsāras is called Upanissaya Gocara. By depending upon such a friend he hears the Dhamma unheard of before, dispels doubts, rectifies his views, gains clearness of mind. In addition to these benefits he grows in faith, morality, learning, generosity and wisdom. Hence that good friend is the Upanissaya Gocara, the powerful support for developing wholesome qualities such as morality, etc.

The ten kinds of speech conducive to liberation:

1. appiccha kathā-speech about wanting little.
2. santuṭṭhi kathā-speech about contentment with what one has in hand,
3. paviveka kathā-speech about living in solitude.
[ 182 ] 4. asamsagga kathā-speech about living in seclusion,
5. vīriyārambha kathā-speech about making effort,
6. sīla kathā-speech about morality,
7. samādhi kathā-speech about concentration of the mind,
8. paññā katha-speech about Vipassanā Insight and the knowledge of the Paths,
9. vimutti katha-speech about the Fruition States (liberation), and
10. vimuttiñāṇadassana-speech about the Paccavekkhanā kathā ñana, Reflective Knowledge of the Path and Fruition.

In brief, the person who uses ten kinds of speech relating to liberation from the suffering of saṃsara bringing thus five advantages such as hearing the Dhamma unheard of before, etc., the good friend who can make others progress in five attributes such as faith, morality, learning, generosity, and wisdom-such a one is called Upanissaya Gocara, the resort which provides the strong sufficing condition for the development of wholesome qualities such as morality, etc.

Mindfulness (Sati) that guards the mind is called Ārakkha Gocara. (Ārakkha-that guards the mind; Gocara-Sati, mindfulness.) (A bhikkhu, who takes resort in mindfulness, goes for alms round into the village and town, with downcast eyes, seeing the length of a plough yoke and guarding his sense faculties. He goes on without looking at the troops of elephants, or troops of horses., or troops of chariots, or infantry soldiers, or at women or men. He does not look up or down, or towards any of the eight directions and keeps going. A bhikkhu who does not take resort in mindfulness, Ārakkha Gocara, when going round for alms food in the village and town, looks this way and that way, everywhere like a crow kept in a covered basket. Hence, mindfulness is the resort that protects the mind of the bhikkhu from the danger of evil thoughts.

[ 183 ] As the Four Foundations of Steadfast Mindfulness (Satipaṭṭhāna Kammaṭṭhāna) are the resort to which the mind is anchored, it is called Upanibandha Gocara. (Upanibanda=where mind is anchored; gocara=resort.)

The bhikkhu who wants to make his Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla completely pure should have proper conduct, wholesome resort and look upon the slightest fault as an enormous danger.

Here ends of the Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla.

(b) Indriyasaṃvara Sīla.

Guarding the faculty of sense is called Indriyasaṃvara Sīla. [The six bases, namely, eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind are called Indriya.) Indriya means governing. In seeing a sight, the eye (cakkhu pasāda) is the governing organ. If the eye is defective, it cannot see an object (eye-consciousness cannot arise); therefore the Buddha says that the eye is called cakkhundriya. Similarly, in hearing a sound, the ear (sota pasāda) is the governing organ. If the ear is defective, it cannot hear a sound (ear-consciousness cannot arise); therefore the ear is called sotindriya. In smelling an odour, the nose (ghānapasāda) is the governing organ; if the nose is defective, it cannot smell an odour (nose-consciousness cannot arise); therefore the nose is called, ghānindriya. In tasting a flavour, the tongue (jivhā pasāda) is the governing organ. If the tongue is defective, it cannot taste a flavour (tongue-consciousness cannot arise); therefore the tongue is called jivhindriya. In touching a tangible object, the body (Kāya pasāda) is the governing organ. If the body is defective, it cannot feel a tangible object (body-consciousness cannot arise); therefore the body is called kāyindriya. In cognizing a mental object, the mind (mana) is the governing organ. With no mind there cannot arise mind-consciousness; therefore mind is called manidriya. Thus guarding these six faculties (indriya) is called Indriyasaṃvara Sīla.]

[ 184 ] This is how to guard the six sense faculties: when seeing a visible object with the eye, one should be aware of it only as a visible object; one should not cognize even the general aspect of what is seen, e.g. "this is a woman", "this is a man", "this is beautiful", that will cause the arising of defilements. Nor should one give attention to details (anubyañjana) regarding the sign or image of that woman, man, etc., such as shape of hand, leg, etc., the manner of smiling, laughing, talking, etc., looking aside, etc., which will cause repeated arising of defilements.

Example of Mahā Tissa Thera.

With regard to guarding the faculty of eye, Mahā Tissa Thera who lived on the top of Cetiya mountain should be shown as an example. One day Mahā Tissa Thera went into Anurādha for alms food. That day a woman who had quarrelled with her busband left her house to go back to her parents' place; she had dressed herself in fine clothes. Seeing Mahā Tissa Thera who was coming with the restraint of his faculties, she laughed loudly with the thought. "I will make him my husband after alluring him." Mahā Tissa Thera looked up to see what it was. Seeing the bones of her teeth, he developed Perception of Foulness (Asubha saññā), and contemplating on it attained Arahantship.

Her husband who was going after her saw the Thera and asked:

Venerable Sir, did you see a woman on the way?

"Nābhijānāmi itthi vā, puriso vā ito gato,
api ca aṭṭhisamghato, gacchatesa mahāpathe"

"Dāyaka, I don't notice whether it was a man or a woman that went by.

I was only aware that a skeleton had gone along the road."

Even though the Thera saw the sight of a woman, he just saw it, but was not aware that it was a woman; instead, he simply developed his meditation and became an Arahant. That incident should be taken as a good example.

[ 185 ] Without control of the sense of sight, when a bhikkhu sees a pleasant object, covetousness (abhijjhā) will arise in him; if he sees an unpleasant object, unhappiness, grief (domanassa) will arise in him. Therefore one should exercise control over one's sense of sight through mindfulness to prevent arising of such unwholesome states of mind.

With regard to the remaining sense doors, similar control is to be maintained so that no defilement would arise from hearing a sound, smelling an odour, tasting a flavour, touching a tangible object or cognizing a mental object.

Here ends Indriyasaṃvara Sīla.

(c) Ājīvapārisuddhi Sīla.

Ājīvapārisuddhi Sīla, the morality of purity of livelihood, means avoiding six kinds of livelihood which the Vinaya prohibits and avoiding of all other kinds of wrong livelihood. The six Sikkhāpadas promulgated by the Buddha with regard to livelihood are:

(1) Having evil wishes and being oppressed by them, if a bhikkhu boasts of Jhāna, Magga, Phala attainments which are not present in him, and which have never been present before, he is guilty of Pārājika Āpatti.

(2) For the sake of livelihood, if he acts as a go between, arranging marriages, he is guilty of Saṃghādisesa Āpatti.

(3) Without mentioning directly, 'I am an Arahant', if he says, for the sake of livelihood, 'A certain bhikkhu lives at your monastery, that bhikkhu is an Arahant' and if the donor of the monastery understands what he means, he is guilty of Thullaccaya Apatti.

[ 186 ] (4) For the sake of livelihood, if he asks for and eats sumptuous food¹¹, without being ill, he is guilty of Pācittiya Āpatti.

(5) For the sake of livelihood, if a bhikkhuni asks for and eats sumptuous food, without being ill she is guilty of Pātidesaniya Āpatti.

(6) For the sake of livelihood, if a bhikkhu asks for and eats curry or boiled rice, without being ill, he is guilty of Dukkaṭa Āpatti.

Other kinds of wrong livelihood in addition to the above six are:

(1) Kuhana, hypocrisy, (2) Lapana, talking,
(3) Nemittikatā, hinting, (4) Nippesikatā, belittling.
(5) Lābhena Iābhaṃ nijigīsanatā, seeking gain with gain.

(a) Kuhana, hypocrisy, is of three kinds:

(i) Hypocrisy in use of requisities (Paccaya paṭisevana).
(ii) Hypocrisy in talk on subjects close to attainments of the Path and the Fruition States (Samanta Jappana).
(iii) Hypocrisy in change of postures to decieve lay devotees (Iriyāpatha saṇṭhapana).

(i) When lay devotees offer a bhikkhu robes, etc., although he wants them, having evil desires to pretend and pose himself as if he has attributes which are nonexistent, he says in order to get even more, (for robes): 'What is the use of such expensive robes for a bhikkhu? Only pansukūlika robes made of refuse rags is proper for him, (for food) he says: [ 187 ] 'What is the use of such expensive food for a bhikkhu? Only food obtained on alms round is proper for a bhikkhu'. (For dwelling place) he says: 'What is the use of such a fine dwelling place for a bhikkhu? Only dwelling at the foot of a tree or in the open air is proper for him'; (for medicine) he says; 'What is the use of such expensive medicine for a bhikkhu? Cow urine or a portion of gall nut or myrobalan is good for him as medicine.

Accordingly, to practise what he preaches, he uses only coarse robes, coarse dwelling place and coarse medicines. Lay devotees think so highly of him thus: "This Venerable One has few wishes; he is easily contented; he is free from desires of material goods and sense pleasures; he does not mix with lay people; he is also very diligent (in the practice of Dhamma)". Then they invite him to accept more and more of requisites. Then the bhikkhu with evil desires boastfully says: "Dayaka, when these three things: the faith, material goods to offer and the person to receive them are present, then the good person who has faith can develop much merit. Here, you devotees have surely faith; you have things to give away in charity; and indeed, I am a donee. If I do not accept your alms, your merit will decline. So out of compassion for you, I should accept your alms although I am not in need of them." So saying, he accepts cartloads of robes and food, numerous dwelling places and large quantities of medicine. Thus, though he is avaricious, he pretends to be of little wants, and uses coarse requisites to make others think highly of him. This is called Paccayapaṭisevana Kuhana, hypocrisy in use of requisites.

(ii) Without saying directly, "I have already attained Jhāna, Magga and Phala", he makes other people think that he is already in possession of them by insinuating, "The bhikkhu who wears such kind of robes is powerful, the bhikkhu who carries such a kind of bowl, such a kind of water filter, such a kind of water strainer, such a kind of waistband, such a kind of sandal, is powerful". This is called Sāmanta Jappana, hypocrisy in talk on subjects close to attainments of Jhāna, Magga and Phala.

(iii) Bent on gaining the praise and high esteem of lay devotees, the bhikkhu thinks, "If I were to walk like [ 188 ] this, people will praise me and think highly of me", and effects the deportment of Noble Ones in going, standing, sitting and lying down. This is called Iriyāpatha saṇṭhapana, hypocitisy in change of posture to deceive lay devotees.

(2) Lapana means talking with an evil motive. When the bhikkhu sees people coming to the monastery, he speaks to them first, "Dayaka, for what purpose do you come here? Do you come here to invite bhikkhus? If so, you go ahead, I will follow you carrying the bowl;" or he says, "I am Tissa Thera. The king reveres me. The ministers revere me", etc., While talking with the people he takes care not to go against them, or to bore them, thus avoiding their displeasure. He flatters them calling 'a great banker', 'a great miller', etc., Talking thus in many ways to wheedle alms from lay devotees is called lapana.

(3) Nemittikatā means hinting by making signs or giving indications with an evil motive to induce charity. For example, seeing a man carrying some food, he gives an indication that he also wants some food by saying, "Have you already got food? Where have you got it from? How do you manage to get it?" etc., Seeing cowherds, he points to the calves and says, "Do these calves grow up on milk or water?" The cowherds reply, "Venerable sir, the calves grow up on milk." " I don't think so. Should the calves get milk, the bhikkhus would have got it, too", etc., thus sending the message through to their parents to offer them milk. Hinting thus to induce charity is called nemittikatā.

The forms of talk which gives more direct and glaring indications of what one wants is called sāmanta jappa. Both nemittikatā and sāmanta jappa being different kinds of Lapana, are of evil nature.

In describing the Samanta jappa kind of talk which indicates unmistakably the object of desire, the Visuddhi Magga gives the story of a kulūpaka bhikkhu, a bhikkhu who habitually visited lay people.

[ 189 ] The story of a Kulūpaka bhikkhu.

Wanting a meal a bhikkhu who was in the habit of visiting lay people entered a house and took a seat uninvited. Seeing the bhikkhu and unwilling to give food to him, the woman of the house grumbled, "I haven't got any rice," went out as though to look for some and stayed at a nearby house. The bhikkhu then stealthily went into an inner room and looking here and there saw sugarcane in the corner behind the door, lumps of jaggery in a bowl, flattened piece of dried fish in a basket, rice in a pot and butter in a jar. Thereafter he returned to his seat and sat there as before.

The woman came back murmuring, "I didn't get any rice". The bhikkhu then said, "Dayika, this morning I saw some signs suggesting that I would get nothing to eat." "What signs, Ven'ble Sir?", the woman asked,. "As I came to this house for alms food, I saw on the way a snake as big as sugarcane in the corner behind the door. To drive it away 1 looked for something and found a stone which was as big as the lump of jaggery in your bowl. When I hurled the stone at the snake its hood spread out to the size of the piece of flattened dried fish in your basket. When the snake opened its mouth to bite the stone it showed its teeth and fangs which were like the rice-grains in your pot. The foamy saliva mixed with poison of the angry snake was like the butter in your jar." Caught inextricably in the web of words which glaringly indicates his wish, the woman thought to herself, "Here is no way to deceive the shaven head!". And she reluctantly gave him the sugarcane, cooked the rice and offered it to him together with the butter, jaggery and dried fish.

(4) Nippesikatā, another form of wickedness, means pursuit of gain by wiping off or grinding or pulverising the virtuous qualities of a lay devotee like pursuit of perfume by grinding or pulverising scented materials. Such pursuit is made in many ways: use of abusive language to compel one to give; reproach by saying, "You are a fellow with no faith at all", "You are not like other devotees"; sarcasm by saying to one who does not give. [ 190 ] "Oh, what a donor! Oh, what a great donor"; ridiculing remark made to a non-giver in the midst of people by saying, "Why do you say that this man does not offer any thing? He always gives the words 'I have nothing' to everyone who comes for alms." Such pursuit of gain by belittling the virtuous qualities of lay devotees is called Nippesikatā.

(5) Lābhena lābhaṃ nijigīsanatā means pursuit of gain with gain motivated by covetousness. For example, after receiving some food offered at a dayaka's house, a bhikkhu gives it away to the children in the neighbourhood. He does so just to make the families of children give him more in return to express their thanks and delight (for his seeming interest in their children). In brief, seeking for more alms from another house by giving away the few offerings he has already received is called Lābhena lābham nijigīsanatā.

The five kinds of wrong livelihood, such as Kuhana, etc., described above, are different from one another only in the manner of pursuance in their nature, they are all the same-beguiling lay devotees into giving him offerings reluctantly.

Thus living on things obtained by infringing the six sikkhāpadas laid down by the Buddha with regard to livelihood as stated before and so things obtained by evil practices of kuhana, lapana, nemittikatā, nippesikatā and lābhena lābhaṃ nijigīsanatā, is called Micchājiva (Wrong Livelihood). Refraining from all forms of wrong livelihood and becoming pure in means of living is called Ājīvapārisuddhi Sīla.

Here ends Ājīvapārisuddhi Sīla.

(d) Paccayasannissita Sīla.

Morality fulfilled by depending on the four requisites is called Paccayasannissita Sīla.

The four requisites are robes, food, dwelling place and medicine. They are indispensable; living is [ 191 ] impossible without them. But when using them one should reflect on the nature of the requisite concerned so that such evils as greed, hatred, etc., may not arise.

The way in which one should reflect: (While using robes) without considering it as an embellishment (which will cause arising of demeritorious thoughts) one reflects on it wisely, "For the purpose of protection from the cold I wear this robe; for the purpose of protection from the heat of the sun I wear this robe; for the purpose of protection from contact with mosquitoes, gad-flies, wind, heat of the sun, snakes, scorpions, fleas, etc., I wear this robe; for the purpose of concealing the private parts of the body (that would disturb conscience) I wear this robe."

(While using alms-food) one reflects wisely, "I take this almsfood not for amusement as children do; I take this almsfood not for intoxication with manliness; I take this almsfood not for development of body beauty; I take this almsfood not for a clear skin and complexion. I take this almsfood only for long endurance and maintenance of the body; I take this almsfood for warding off the oppression of hunger; I take this almsfood for facilitating the noble practice. By thus taking almsfood, the old suffering of hunger and thirst will be got rid of; I will also ward off the new suffering of indigestion due to overeating etc., By moderate eating, the old suffering of hunger and thirst and the new suffering of indigestion due to over-eating cannot arise, and my body will be maintained. This almsfood is sought properly and eaten in a blameless manner and by taking it moderately I shall live in comfort."

With regard to living in comfort by eating moderately, the Buddha expounded:

Cattāro pañca ālope,
abhutvā udakaṃ pive.
alaṃ phāsuviharāya,
pahitattassa bhikkhuno.

With four or five morsels still to eat a bhikkhu should finish off his meal by drinking water. This is [ 192 ] sufficient to abiding in comfort of the bhikkhu with resolute will for meditation.

Even though this discourse was expounded by the Buddha primarily to meditating yogis, it is also beneficial to non-meditators. By following this instruction, they can abide in ease, free from discomfort of immoderate eating.

(While using a dwelling place) one reflects thus, "I use this dwelling place for the purpose of protection from the cold; I use this dwelling place for the purpose of protection from the heat of the sun; I use this dwelling place for the purpose of protection from mosquitoes, gadflies, wind, heat of the sun, snakes, scorpions, fleas, etc., I see this dwelling place to ward off the perils of extreme climates and for enjoying (secluded living).

(While using medicine) one reflects, "I take this medicine for the purpose of countering illness, for the protection of life and for immunity from afflictions that have arisen or are arising.

This elaborate manner of reflection is called Mahā Paccavekkhaṇā.

Here ends Paccayasannissita Sīla.

How to fulfil these four kinds of Sīla.

Of these four kinds, the Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla should be fulfilled with faith and confidence (saddha): faith and confidence in the Buddha thus, "The Exalted One who has promulgated the Sikkhāpadas is truly a Buddha who realizes all the Laws of Nature without exception, (i.e. having a clear vision of the Buddha); faith and confidence in the Dhamma thus, "The Sikkhāpadas to be practised by the Saṃgha are indeed those promulgated by the Buddha." (i.e. having a clear vision of the Dhamma); faith and confidence in the Saṃgha thus, "Members of the Saṃgha are the disciples of the Buddha, all of whom practising well these Sikkhāpadas (i.e. having a clear vision of the Saṃgha.)"

[ 193 ] Thus, if one has faith and confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṃgha, one would be able to fulfil the Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla.

Therefore the Sikkhāpadas as promulgated by the Buddha should be observed without exception, with faith and confidence and should be fulfilled even at the cost of one's life. The Buddha, indeed, has expounded thus; kikī va andaṃ cāmarīva vāladhiṃ, etc.," Just as the female pheasant guards her eggs even sacrificing her life, just as the yak (cāmarī) guards its tail even sacrificing its life, just as the householder guards his only son with lovingkindness, just as the one-eyed man protects his only eye with meticulous care, even so the observers of moral precepts in all three ages should have a high regard for the Sīla, and guarding it with affection."

The story of Elders who fulfilled Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla at the cost of their lives.

Once in Mahāvattani forest grove of Sri Lanka robbers caught a Thera and bound him with creepers and made him lie down. Even though he could free himself with his effort if he desired, he feared that should he make a struggle the black creepers would break and he would be guilty of bhūtagāma pācittiya āpatti'. So he developed Vipassana Insight by meditation for seven days in his lying posture, attained the Anagamiphala, the Fruition State of Non-Returner, and passed away on the very spot; he was reborn in the Brahma world.

Also in Sri Lanka another Thera was similarly mistreated by robbers. At that time a forest fire broke out. Even though he could manage to free himself, he feared that he might be guilty of Bhūtagāma pācittiya āpatti. By developing Vipassana Insight without cutting the creepers, he became a Samasisi Arahant, whose defilements and life span ended at the same time, and attained Mahā Parinibbāna. Then Abhaya Thera, the Dīghanikāya Reciter together [ 194 ] with five hundred bhikkhus, arrived on the scene. Seeing the body of the Thera, he had it cremated properly and a shrine built. Therefore it is stated in the commentary:

Pātimokkhaṃ visodhento,
appeva jīvitam jahe.
paññattaṃ Lokanāthena,
na bhinde sīla saṃvaraṃ.

The good man who maintains the purity of the Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla should sacrifice his own life rather than break the precepts laid down by the Buddha.

Just as Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla is fulfilled with faith and confidence, so also Indriyasaṃvara Sīla should be fulfilled with mindfulness. Only when Indriyasaṃvara Sīla is well-guarded by mindfulness, Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla will endure long. When Indriyasaṃvara Sīla is broken, Pātimokkhasaṃvara Sīla will be broken.

At the time of the Buddha, a newly ordained bhikkhu, Venerable Vaṅgīsa, while going on alms-round, broke Indriyasaṃvara Sīla, losing his restraint of faculties and was filled with lust on seeing a woman. He said to Thera Ānanda, "Venerable Ānanda, I am burning with sensual lust, my mind is consumed by the flames of lust. Out of compassion, please teach me the Dhamma to extinguish the burning flames."

Then the Venerable Ānanda replied, "As you perceive wrongly, the burning flames consume your mind. Dispel your perception of pleasantness in what you see, for it leads to lust; see foulness there to purify your mind." The Venerable Vaṅgīsa followed the Thera's advice and the burning fires of lust died down.

There are two other examples which should be followed by one who wishes to fulfill Indriyasaṃvara Sīla.

[ 195 ] The story of Cittagutta Thera.

In the great cave Kurandaka in Sri Lanka there was a lovely painting depicting the renunciation of the Seven Buddhas such as Vipassī etc; a number of guest bhikkhus wandering amidst the dwellings saw the painting and said: "Venerable Sir, what a lovely painting it is in your cave!" The Thera replied, "For more than sixty years, friends, I have lived in the cave, and I did not know whether there was any painting or not. Today, I come to know about it through you who have very keen eyesight." (Though the Thera had lived there for more than sixty years, he had never raised his eyes and looked up at the cave even once. And at the door of his cave there was a great ironwood tree. The Thera had never looked up at the tree either. But seeing the flower petals on the ground each year, he knew it was in bloom.)

Hearing the Thera's strict observance of Indriyasaṃvara Sīla the King of Mahāgama sent for him three times, desiring to pay homage to him. When the Thera did not come, the King had the breasts of all the women with infants in the village bound and sealed off, saying "As long as the Thera does not come, let the children go without milk." Out of compassion for the children the Elder went to Mahāgama.

Being informed that the Thera had come, the King said, 'Go and bring the Thera into the palace. I want to take the precepts'. In the inner chamber, the king paid homage to the Thera and provided him with a meal after which he said, "Venerable Sir, it is not opportune for me today to take the precepts. I shall do so tomorrow." Carrying the Thera's bowl he followed him for a short distance and paid homage with the queen. Whether it was the king or the queen who paid him homage the Thera gave the blessing, "May the king be happy!" Seven days went by in this manner.

The fellow-Bhikkhus asked him, " Venerable Sir, why it is that, whether it is the king or the queen who pays homage, you say, 'May the king be happy?' " The Thera replied, [ 196 ] "Friends, I have no particular awareness whether it is the king or the queen." At the end of seven days, when the king found that the Thera was not happy living there, he allowed him to leave. He went back to the great cave at Kurandaka. When night came he went out onto his walk.

A Deva who dwelt in the ironwood tree stood by with a torch. The Thera's meditation was so pure and bright that it gladdened him. Immediately after the middle watch he reached Arahantship, making the whole mountain resound with a thunderous roar.

(This story gives a good example of how, Indriyasaṃvara should be observed.)

The story of Mahā-Mitta Thera.

The Thera Mahā-Mitta's mother was sick with a breast tumour. She told her daughter, who also had gone forth as a bhikkhuni, "Go to your brother. Tell him my trouble and bring back some medicine." She went and told him, who said, "I do not know how to gather herbs and concoct a medicine from them. But I will rather tell you a kind of medicine: 'since I became a recluse, I have not broken my Indriyasaṃvara Sīla by looking at the bodily form of the opposite sex with lustful thoughts.' By this declaration of truth may my mother get well. Go back and repeat the words of truth I have just uttered and rub her body." She went back and reported to her mother what her brother had told her and did as she has been instructed. At that very moment the mother's tumour vanished like a lump of froth breaking into pieces. She got up and uttered with joy: "If the Fully Enlightened One were still alive, why should he not stroke with his net-adorned hand¹² the head of a bhikkhu like my son!"

Mahā-Mitta Thera's way of restraint of the faculties is somewhat different from that of the former Thera, Cittagutta. Cittagutta Thera restrained his facutties with down-cast eyes so as not to look at any of the objects even by chance. Whereas Mahā Mitta Thera did not rest [ 197 ] rain with down-cast eyes. He looked at things as they presented themselves. Even when he caught the sight of the opposite sex, he restrained his faculty of eye to prevent lust from arising.

The Venerable Cittagutta Thera's way of restraint of the faculties is like the closing of the door of the house completely not letting any robbers come in. The Venerable Mahā Mitta Thera's way of restraint is not closing the door, but keeping the robbers from entering the house even once. Both types of restraint are marvellous and worthy of emulation.

While restraint of the faculties is to be undertaken with mindfulness (sati), purification of livelihood is to be practised with energy (vīriya). This is because one is able to abandon wrong livelihood only by applying right energy. Therefore avoiding unbefitting, improper means, purification of livelihood should be undertaken with the right kind of search like going on alms round with energy.

No hint, roundabout talk, indication or intimation is allowable to acquire such requisites as robes and alms food. But as regards acquiring a dwelling place only intimation is not allowable.

Hint': when a bhikkhu who is preparing the ground etc., as if to build a dwelling place is asked, "What is being done, Ven'ble Sir? Who is having it done?" and he replies, "No one"; such a reply of his is a 'hint' (implying that there is no donor yet for the dwelling place). All other actions which communicate his need for a residence also constitute a hint.

Roundabout talk': a bhikkhu asks a lay devotee, "What kind of a house do you live in?" "In a mansion, Venerable Sir." "But, Dāyaka, is a mansion not allowed for bhikkhus?" This and any such expressions constitute a 'roundabout talk'.

Indication': "The dwelling place is too small for the community of bhikkhus" or any other such suggestive talks constitute an 'Indication'.

[ 198 ] All four forms of talk such as hint, etc., are allowed in the case of medicine. But when the disease is cured, is it or is it not allowed to use the medicine obtained in this way? Herein, the Vinaya specialists say that since the Buddha has opened the way for its use, it is allowable. But the Suttanta specialists maintain that though there is no offence, nevertheless the purity of livelihood is sullied; therefore it is not allowable. But one who wishes to live a completely pure noble life should not use hint, roundabout talk, indication or intimation, even though these are permitted by the Blessed One. Endowed as he is with special qualities such as having few wants, etc., he should make use only of requisites obtained by means other than hint, etc., even when he is to risk his life. Such a one is called a person of extremely noble, austere practice like the Venerable Sāriputta.

The story of the Venerable Sāriputta.

Once the Venerable Sāriputta, wishing to cultivate noble life, lived in a solitary place in a certain forest with the Venerable Mahā Moggāllana. One day an affliction of colic arose in him, causing him great pain. In the evening the Thera Mahā Moggalāna went to confer with him and found him lying down. He asked, "What is the matter?" When the Venerable Sāriputta explained, he asked again, "What had helped you in the past?" The Venerable Sāriputta said, "When I was lay man, friend, my mother gave me rice gruel prepared with a mixture of ghee, honey, sugar and so on. That used to make me recover." Then the Venerable Mahā Moggalāna Thera said, "So be it, friend, if either you or I have accumulated enough merit, perhaps tomorrow we shall get some."

Now a Deva who lived in a tree at the end of the walk overheard their conversation. Thinking, "I will find rice gruel for the Thera tomorrow", he went immediately to the family who was supporting Mahā Moggalāna Thera and entered the eldest son's body to cause him discomfort. Then he told the boy's family who had gathered that if they would prepare rice gruel of such and such a kind next day for the Thera, he would set the boy free. [ 199 ] They replied, "Even without being told by you we regularly offer almsfood to the Thera." The next day they prepared rice gruel.

Mahā Moggalāna Thera went to Sāriputta Thera in the morning and told him, "Stay here, friend, till I come back from the alms round." Then he went into the village. The people met him, took his bowl, filled it with rice gruel prepared as required and gave it back to him. When the Thera made to leave, they said, "Eat, Ven'ble Sir, we shall give you more." When the Thera had eaten, they gave him another bowlful. The Thera left taking the almsfood to the Venerable Sāriputta, and told him to eat. When the Venerable Sāriputta saw it, he thought, "The rice gruel is very nice. How was it got?" He then reflected and, seeing how it had been obtained, said, "Friend, the almsfood is not fit to be used." Instead of feeling offended and thinking, "He does not eat the almsfood brought by someone like me", Mahā Moggalāna Thera at once took the bowl by the rim and turned it over. (Not because he was angry.)

As the rice gruel fell on the ground the Venerable Sāriputta's affliction vanished. (And it did not re-appear during the remaining forty-five years of his life.) Then he said to the Venerable Mahā Moggalāna, "Friend, even if one's bowels come out and fall to the ground in a whole coil through hunger it is not fitting to eat gruel got by verbal intimation."

Herein, it should be noted: the Blessed One prohibited only verbal intimation about the food. The Venerable Sāriputta did not use verbal intimation to get the food. When Mahā Moggalāna Thera wanted to know what had cured his affliction before, he only related the relief given by rice gruel in the past. However, he was not pleased that a verbal intimation had been made at all and did not accept the rice gruel.

The story of Ambakhadaka Mahā Tissa Thera.

Let alone a Thera of the Venerable Sariputta's stature during the lifetime of the Buddha, even little known Mahā [ 200 ] Tissa of Ciragumba in Sri Lanka long after the demise of the Buddha had strictly observed the disciplinary rules. Once Mahā Tissa, while travelIing during a famine, became weary and weak owing to lack of food and tedious journey. So he lay down at the foot of a mango tree full of fruit. Several mangoes fell to the ground here and there near him. But he would not think of picking up some to eat in spite of his hunger.

At that time an old man came near him and, seeing him in the state of exhaustion, prepared some mango juice and offered the Thera. Then carrying the Thera on his back, the man took him where he wanted to go. While being carried thus the Thera thought to himself: "This man is not my father, or my mother, or any relative of mine. Yet he takes me on his back; this is only because of the morality I possess." Reflecting thus he admonished himself to keep his morality and concentration of mind intact without blemishes. He then developed Vipassanā Insight and while still being carried on the back of the man he attained Arahantship through successive stages of the Path.

This Mahā Thera is a noble person whose abstemiousness in food serves as an example for emulation.

While Purification of livelihood (Ājīvapārisuddhi Sīla) is to be practised with energy (Vīriya), Morality which depends upon the four requisites (Paccaya sannnissita Sīla) should be fulfilled with wisdom (Paññā). Since only men of wisdom can discern the advantages and dangers of the four requisites, Paccaya sannissita Sīla is the morality which is fulfilled through wisdom. Therefore one should make use of the four requisites, which have been obtained lawfully, without craving for them and after reflecting with wisdom in the aforesaid manner.

Two kinds of reflection (Paccavekkhaṇā).

There are two kinds of reflection (paccavekkhaṇā) on the four requisites (1) reflection at the time of receiving them and (2) reflection at the time of using them. Not only at the time of using the requisites but also at the [ 201 ] time of receiving them one reflects either (a) as mere elements (Dhātu paccavekkhaṇā), or (b) as repulsive objects (Patikūla paccavekkhaṇā) and put them away for later use.

(a) Reflection as elements: This robe (etc.) is a mere aggregate of eight elements which arise when conditions are present. So is the person who uses them.
(b) Reflection as repulsive objects: Reflection on food as in meditation on perception of foulness in nutriment (Ahare patikūla sañña); and reflection on robes, etc., thus: "All these robes, etc., which are not in themselves disgusting become utterly repulsive when associated with this filthy body."

(To recapitulate, reflection is of three kinds in all: (1) Mahā Paccavekkhaṇā as described in detail regarding the use in general of the four requisites, (2) Dhātu Paccavekkhaṇā, reflecting on the four requisites as mere elements, and (3) Patikūlamanasikāra paccavekkhaṇā reflection on them as repulsive objects whether in their own nature or when put in use.

If a bhikkhu reflects on the robes, etc., at the time of receiving them and if he does again at the time of use, his use of the requisites is blameless from beginning to end.

Four kinds of use.

To dispel doubts about use of requisites one should take note of four kinds of their use:

(a) Use like an act of thieving (theyya paribhoga): use of requisites by an immoral person even in the midst of the Saṃgha is called theyya paribhoga.
(The Blessed One has permitted the use of the four requisites for men of morality. Lay devotees also make their offerings to virtuous persons only expecting great benefit for their good deeds. Therefore immoral persons have no right whatever to enjoy the requisites.
[ 202 ] Hence using them without such right by immoral persons resembles an act of thieving. Visuddhi Magga Mahā Ṭīkā.)

(b) Use like owing debt (ina paribhoga): use of requisites by a moral person without due reflection is like owing a debt. One should reflect every time a robe is used; every time a morsel of food is eaten. Failing to do so at the time of using these requisites one should reflect on them in the morning, at dusk, during the first watch, middle watch and last watch of the night. If dawn breaks without his making such reflection he finds himself in the position of one who owes a debt.
Every time he passes under the roof to enter the dwelling place and after entering it every time he sits, every time he lies down he should make due reflection. In receiving a requisite of medicine and in using it he should make reflection. But if he makes reflection while receiving and fails to do so when using it he is guilty of an offence. On the other hand, even if he fails to make reflection when receiving but does when using it he is free from guilt.

Four kinds of purification of Sīla.

If a bhikkhu happens to have committed an offence, he should take a recourse to any of the four kinds of purification of his morality as mentioned below:

(1) Purification by admission of fault (desanā suddhi): Pātimokkasaṃvara Sīla is purified by open declaration of its breach.

(2) Purification by restraint (saṃvara suddhi): Indriyasaṃvara Sīla is purified by making the resolution, "Never will I do it again."

(3) Purification by search (pariyetthi suddhi): Ājīvapāriuddhi Sīla is purified by abandoning wrong search and seeking requisites in a lawful manner.

[ 203 ] (4) Purification by reflection (paccavekkanā suddhi): Paccayasannissita Sīla is purified by reflection according to the manner mentioned above.

(c) Use like getting an inheritance (dāyajja paribhoga): use of requisite by the seven kinds of Learners (Sekkha) implying Noble Ones who have realized three lower Paths and three lower Fruition States and the Path of Arahantships). These seven kinds of Learners are sons of the Buddha. Just as a son is an heir to his father, these noble persons as heirs make use of the requisites allowed by the Buddha. (Although the requisites are in practice given by the laity, yet they are allowed by the Buddha and thus they are to be considered as the Buddha's requisites.)

(d) Use like a master by an Arahant (sāmi paribhoga); worldlngs (puthujjanas) and Learners (Sekkhas) are not free from craving yet and accordingly they remain subject to craving and their use of requisites is not as masters but as slaves of craving. On the other hand, Arahants have been liberated from servitude of craving and their use of requisites is as masters with full control over craving. Therefore they can use disgusting things reflecting on their non-disgusting nature or they can use non-disgusting things reflecting on their disgusting nature, or they can use reflecting on them as neither disgusting nor non-disgusting things.

Of these four kinds of use, use like a master by an Arahant and use like getting an inheritance are allowable to all. Herein, as said before, use of requisites like a master is applicable only to Arahants; but if sekkhas and puthujjanas use the requisites by abandoning craving through perception of their foulness it is like being liberated from servitude of craving; therefore this kind of use may also be classed as use like a master by an Arahant, sāmi paribhoga. In the same way, Arahants and Puthujjanas may also be considered as inheriting sons of the Buddha.

[ 204 ] Use like owing a debt is not allowable, more so is the use like an act of thieving which is certainly not allowable. Use of requisites after reflection by one endowed with morality is opposite to use like owing a debt, iṇa paribhoga and is thus called use without owing a debt, ānaṇya paribhoga. At the same time puthujjanas endowed with morality who use requisites after due reflection may be reckoned as a sekkha, noble person. Therefore use of requisites after due reflection by such puthujjanas endowed with morality is also reckoned as use like getting an inheritance.

Of these four kinds of use, use like a master by an Arahant is the noblest; a bhikkhu who wishes to use requisites like a master should fulfil the Paccayasannissita Sīla by using the four requisites only after due reflection.

Here ends Morality in Groups of Fours.

Morality in Groups of Fives.

Morality is of five kinds:

(a) Pariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla,
(b) Apariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla,
(c) Paripuṇṇa Pārisuddhi Sīla,
(d) Aparāmaṭṭha Pārisuddhi Sīla, and
(e) Patippassadhi Pārisuddhi Sīla.

(a) Morality consisting in limited purification (Pariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla). Morality observed by lay devotees and Sāmaneras are called morality consisting in limited purification, because it is limited by the number of precepts to be kept.

The Visuddhi Magga does explain the limit by the number of the precepts in Pariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla. But the Paṭisambhidā Magga Commentary explains as has been mentioned before two kinds of limit (i)limit regarding the precepts observed (Sikkhāpada pariyanta); (ii) limit regarding the period of observance of precepts (Kāla pariyanta).

[ 205 ] (i) limit regarding the number of precepts observed: this refers to the number of precepts traditionally observed by lay devotees, namely, one, two, three or four precepts; five, eight or ten precepts (whatever number of precepts they can observe). Probationers, Sāmaneras and Sāmaneris keep the ten precepts. This is the limit regarding the number of precept observed.
(ii) limit regarding the period of observance of precepts: when lay devotees make a ceremonial offering of alms, they also observe precepts within the limited period of the ceremony; whenever they go to monastery too, they observe precepts before returning home, or for one, two, three days or more during daytime or night-time. This is the limit regarding the period of observance of precepts.

(b) Morality without limit (Apariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla). The Dve Mātika which is the summary of the Ubhato Vibhaṅga enumerates 227 sikkhāpadas for members of the Saṃgha. When expanded, these sikkhapadas total up to nine thousand one hundred and eighty croes, five million and thirty six thousand. These disciplinary rules for bhikkhus are promulgated by the Buddha and were recorded in brief by the Convenors of the First Council. The whole group of these disciplinary rules is called Apariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla.

Though the disciplinary rules are laid down by the Buddha in a definite number, the Saṃgha has to observe all of them without exception; furthermore it is impossible to foresee the termination of observance of Sīla through five kinds of destruction, namely, that due to gain, that due to fame, that due to relatives, that due to impairment of body and that due to loss of life. For these reasons. these disciplinary rules are collectively called Apariyanta Pārisuddhi Sīla. This is the kind of Sīla observed by Mahā Tissa Thera of Ciragumba described above.

(c) Morality which is completely purified by a worldling who is striving for the spiritual good is called Paripuṇṇa pārisuddhi Sīla. His morality since the time of admission [ 206 ] to the Order has been very pure like a bright ruby properly cut or like well refined gold. Therefore it is devoid of even the stain of impure thoughts and becomes the approximate cause for Arahantship. Hence it is named Paripuṇṇa pārisuddhi Sīla. Mahā Saṃgharakkhita Thera and his nephew, Saṃgharakkhitta Thera set examples of how such Sīla is to be observed.

The Story of Mahā Saṃgharakkhita Thera.

While Mahā Saṃgharakkhita Thera of over sixty years standing in the Order (aged eighty)was lying on his death bed, bhikkhus enquired of him. "Venerable Sir, have you attained the supramundane states?" The Thera replied, "I have not made any such attainment yet." At that time a young bhikkhu attendant of the Mahā Thera addressed him, "Venerable Sir, people living within twelve leagues have assembled here thinking that the Venerable One has passed into Parinibbāna. If they come to know that you have passed away as an ordinary worldling, they will be much disappointed."

Then the Mahā Thera said, "Friend, thinking I will see the coming Buddha Metteya. I have not strived for Vipassanā Insight meditation. If it will be a disappointment for many, help me to sit up and give me a chance to contemplate with mindfulness." The young bhikkhu helped the Thera to sit up and went out. As soon as he left the room the Mahā Thera attained Arahantship and gave a sign by a snap of his fingers. The young bhikkhu returned and made him lie down as before. He reported the matter to the Saṃgha who assembled and addressed the Thera. "Venerable Sir, you have performed such a difficult task of attaining the supramundane state even when so close to death. The Mahā Thera replied, "Friends, it is not difficult for me to attain Arahantship when the hour of death is drawing near. Rather I will tell you what is really difficult to perform. Friends, I see no action which I have done without mindfulness and full comprehension since the time of my admission to the Order. It is only such [ 207 ] kind of action which is always accompanied by mindfulness and full comprehension that is far more difficult to do."

The Mahā Thera's nephew also attained Arahantship like him when he completed fifty sixth year as a bhikkhu.

(4) Morality unaffected by wrong view and observed by Sekkha, noble persons and morality untarnished by lust, and observed by worldlings are called Aparāmaṭṭha Pārisuddhi Sīla, the kind of morality observed by Tissa Thera, the householder's son.

The Story of Tissa Thera, the son of a householder.

A householder in Sri Lanka had two sons. After the death of their father the elder son Tissa gave all inheritance to his younger brother and became a bhikkhu, practising meditation at a jungle monastery. Then the younger brother's wife thought to herself: "Now we get all the wealth because the brother-in-law became a bhikkhu. If he decides to return to layman's life we will have to give him back half the wealth. There is no knowing whether he will do so or not. We will have peace of mind only when he dies". With this thought she engaged some men to kill the Thera.

The men came to the jungle monastery and seized the Thera in the evening. Tissa Thera told them that he possessed nothing which they might want. The men explained, "We do not come here to get your wealth. We come here to kill you (at the instance of your sister-in-law) ." The Thera said, "I possess pure Sīla, but I haven't yet attained Arahatta phala. As I want to achieve Arahantship depending on this pure Sīla, allow me to practise Vipassanā Meditation before dawn." "We cannot grant your request. If you run away during the night we will have to take the trouble of catching you again." Saying, "I will let you see clearly how I cannot run away," the Thera broke his two knees himself with a big stone.

[ 208 ] When both knees were completely broken thus, the Thera said, "Now you have seen my condition. By no means can I run away from you. I abhor to die as a worldling with sensual lust. I feel ashamed of it." Only then did the men give him permission to practise meditation. Then the Thera depending upon his Sīla which was not tarnished by lust, made efforts throughout the night until dawn when he attained Arahantship.

The Story of a Mahā Thera.

Once there was a certain Mahā Thera who was very ill and unable to eat with his hands. He lay rolling smeared with his own urine and excrement. Seeing him a young bhikkhu exclaimed, "Oh, how painful is the life process!" The senior Thera said: "Friend, if I die now I will surely achieve divine bliss. I have no doubt of that. The bliss obtained by breaking¹³ this Sīla is like forsaking monkhood and becoming a lay man. But I am determined to die with my Sīla intact.¹⁴'' So saying he lay in the same place, contemplating on the same illness inherent in the five aggregates of mind and matter and attained Arahantship.

(The Sīla of these Noble Mahā Theras is Aparāmaṭṭha Sīla.)

(e) Morality of Arahants, etc.,¹⁵ which is purified through subsidence of the fires of defilements is called Paṭippassaddhi Pārisuddhi Sīla.

Again:

(2) Morality is of five kinds:

(a) Pahāna Sīla,
(b) Veramaṇi Sīla,
(c) Cetanā Sīla,
[ 209 ] (d) Saṃrata Sīla. and
(e) Avītikkama Sīla.

(a) Morality observed by abandoning killing, etc., is called Morality of abandoning (Pahāna Sīla). (Here 'etc.' covers not only the wrong deeds of stealing, sexual misconduct and so on but also abandoning of everything that ought to be abandoned through successive stages of meritorious deeds. In terms of Abhidhammā, 'abandoning' (pahāna) means a group of wholesome consciousness together with their mental concomitants which are characterised by their function of abandoning everything that is to be abandoned wherever necessary.)

(b) Morality observed by abstaining from killing etc., is called Morality of abstention (Veramaṇi Sīla). In terms of Abhidhammā, it is a group of wholesome consciousness together with their mental concomitants headed by Viratī Cetasika.

(c) Morality observed by volition which associates avoidance of killing, etc., with consciousness is called Morality of Volition (Cetanā Sīla).

(d) Morality observed by preventing thoughts of wrong deeds such as killing, etc., from defiling the mind is called Morality of Restraint (Saṃvara Sīla). In terms of Abhidhammā, it is a group of wholesome consciousness together with their mental concomitants headed by Sati Cetasika.

(e) Morality observed by not committing wrong deeds such as killing. etc., is called Morality of Non-transgression (Avītikkama Sīla). In terms of Abhidhammā it is wholesome consciousness together with their mental concomitants.

(These five kinds of morality beginning with Pahāna Sīla are not separate ones like other sets of Sīla; observance of one, e.g. Pahāna Sīla, by abandoning killing, etc., means observance of all the remaining ones as well.)

Here ends Morality in Groups of Fives

End of the Chapter on groups of Morality.

[ 210 ] Defilement and Purification of Morality.

(6) What is Defilement of Morality?

(7) What is Purification of Morality?

In answering these questions Defilement and Purification of morality should be explained together.

Defilement of Morality means impairment of morality; and in reverse, non-impairment of morality is Purification of Morality.

Impairment of morality may arise through destruction due to gain, fame, etc., or through seven minor acts of sexuality.

To explain further:

Of the seven groups of transgression (āpatti)¹⁶ if a sikkhāpada of the first or the last group is impaired due to craving for gain, fame, etc., a bhikkhu's Sīla is said to be torn like the cloth which is cut at the edge.

If a sikkhāpada in the middle group is impaired, his Sīla is said to be rent like the cloth having a hole in the middle.

If two or three sikkhāpadas are impaired serially, his Sīla is said to be blotched like a cow having irregular marks of brown, red and other colours on her back or belly.

If the sikkhāpadas are impaired at intervals, his Sīla is said to be mottled like a cow having variegated spots of different colours on her body.

Thus impairment of morality through tearing, rending, blotching or mottling due to gain, fame, etc., is Defilement of Morality.

[ 211 ] Even in the absence of impairment of morality through tearing, rending, blotching or mottling, there can be defilement of morality through seven minor acts of sexuality.

The seven minor acts of sexuality are expounded elaborately by the Buddha in the Jāṇussoṇi Sutta of Mahāyañña Vagga, Sattaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. They may be mentioned briefly as follows:

(i) An ascetic or a brahmin claiming to be leading the noble life does not have actual sexual intercourse with a woman, but enjoys being caressed, massaged, bathed and rubbed down by her. (He loves to be attended upon in person by a woman.)
(ii) He does not have sexcual intercourse with a woman, he does not enjoy being attended upon in person by her, but he enjoys joking and laughing with her.
(iii) Or else, he enjoys staring and gazing at a woman eye to eye.
(iv) Or else, he enjoys listening to a woman on the other side of a wall or a fence as she laughs, talks, sings or cries.
(v) Or else, he enjoys recollecting frequently how he has talked, laughed and played with a woman formerly.
(vi) Or else, he enjoys seeing a householder or his son who possesses five kinds of worldly pleasures and who is being served by a host of servants and attendants.
(vii) Or else, he enjoys longing for a divine abode and leads the noble life with the wish, "With this Sīla. with this practice, with this effort and with this noble life, may I be reborn as a great Deva or some Deva."

Thus impairment of morality through tearing, rending, blotching or mottling due to gain, fame. etc., and also [ 212 ] through seven minor acts of sexuality is Defilement of Morality.

(7) Purification of morality characterized by non-tearing, non-rending, non-blotching or non-mottling of Sīla is brought about

(a) by not transgressing any of the sikkhāpadas;
(b) by taking proper remedial measure whenever there is transgression;
(c) by avoiding seven minor acts of sexuality; furthermore,
(d) through non-arising of anger, grudge, disparagement, rivalry, jealousy, meanness-stinginess, deceit, hypocrisy and such evils, and
(e) through development of such attributes as fewness of wishes being easily satisfied, practice of austerity, etc.

These types of morality, Silas which are not torn, not rent, not blotched and not mottled, also assume other names such as Bhujissa Sīla because, they set one free from servitude of craving; Viññūpasattha Sīla because they are praised by the wise; Aparāmattha Sīla because they are not effected by craving: "My Sīla is very pure, it will produce great beneficial results in future", or by wrong personality belief: "This Sīla is mine; my Sīla is very pure; no one possesses Sīla like mine; Samādhi samvattanika Sīla because they are conducive to advancement towards Access Concentration (Upacāra Samādhi) and Absorption Concentration (Appanā Samādhi).

As stated above, these seven factors, namely, not torn, not rent, not blotched, not mottled, liberating, praised by the wise and not tarnished by craving and wrong view are the factors conducive to purification of morality. Only when morality is complete with these seven factors can it develop the aforesaid two kinds of [ 213 ] concentration. Therefore a noble person wishing to develop these two kinds of Concentration should earnestly endeavour to make his Sīla complete with all these seven factors.

Here ends the Chapter on the Perfection of Morality.

(e) Perfection of Renunciation

(Nekkhamma Pāramī).

Nekkhamma means renunciation which is here synonymous with emancipation. Emancipation is of two kinds: emancipation from cycle of existences (saṃsāra) and emancipation from sense-desire (Kāma), the former being the result of the latter. Only when emancipation from sense-desire has been achieved through practice can one gain emancipation from saṃsāra. Of these two kinds of emancipation, it is for the purpose of the resultant emancipation (from existences) that the Buddha expounds in the Buddhavaṃsa Text, likening the three states of existence¹⁷ to prisons.

Essential meaning of Perfection of Renunciation.

According to the Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary, Perfection of Renunciation in terms of Abhidhammā is wholesome consciousness together with mental concomitants that arises by virtue of emancipation from sensedesire and from the three states of existence. The Mahā Niddesa describes two kinds of sense desire: pleasant objects of sense-desire (vatthu kāma), and mental defilement of greed which is desire for pleasant objects (kilesākāma). With reference to Perfection of Renunciation. emancipation from sense-desire means emancipation from both kinds of sense-desire.

[ 214 ] How to be mindful to achieve emancipation.

How to achieve emancipation from bonds of Kilesākāma is explained in the Mahā Niddesa Pāḷi:

Addasaṃ kāma te mūlaṃ saṅkappā kāma jāyasi
na taṃ saṅkappayissāmi evaṃ kāma na hohisi.

"O greed, I have seen your source; you arise from my thoughts of pleasant objects of sense (Kāma Vitakka). No more will I think of any pleasant object of sense. Then, O greed, you will arise no more.

In this connection, three kinds of wrong thought and three kinds of right thought should be understood. The three kinds of wrong thought are:

(i) Kāma Vitakka, sensuous thought, i.e., thinking of pleasant objects as desirable things;
(ii) Vyāpāda Vitakka, hateful thought, i.e., thinking of harming others, and
(iii) Vihiṃsā Vitakka, cruel thought. i.e., thinking of torturing others.

The three kinds of right thought are:

(i) Nekkhamma Vitakka, thought of renunciation, i.e., thinking of emancipating oneself from sensuous objects.
(ii) Avyāpāda Vitakka, thought of hatelessness, i.e., thinking of others with loving-kindness. and
(iii) Avihiṃsā Vitakka, thought of non-violence, i.e.. thinking of others with compassion.

The source of greed (Kilesākāma) or close examination is found to lie in sensuous thought (Kāma Vitakka) which is one of the three wrong thoughts. As long as one keeps on thinking of sensuous thought, greed continues to multiply and there is no emancipation from that mental defilement of greed. Only when one ceases to think of pleasant objects of sense-desire greed will not arise and one achieves emancipation. Therefore as [ 215 ] stated above, one should be mindful to be free from mental defilement of greed. Just as freedom from sense-desire leads to freedom from cycle of saṃsāra, even so making efforts to free oneself from greed results in freedom from pleasant objects of sense-desire.

The characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of this Perfection of Renunciation and of the remaining ones will be dealt with in the Chapter on Miscelleny which follows (in the Second Book).

" Relation between Renunciation and

the Life of a Bhikkhu.

The Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary defines nekkhamma: Nekkhammaṃ pabbajja-mūlakaṃ." This definition can be interpreted in two ways: "Emancipation has a bhikkhu's life as its cause," and "Emancipation is the cause of a bhikkhu's life." The first interpretation, namely, a bhikkhu's life as a cause of emancipation is in consonance with the narration in the Mahā Janaka Jātaka. King Mahā Janaka first acquired requisites of robes, a bowl etc., without the knowledge of his queen, lesser queens and royal attendants and he then went up to the upper terrace of his palace and became a bhikkhu; thereafter he renounced the world. In this instance, the Bodhisatta Mahā Janaka became a bhikkhu before he made the renunciation. Therefore it may be said that the bhikkhu's life is the cause and renunciation is the effect.

The second interpretation, namely, emancipation as a cause of bhikkhu's life is in consonance with the stories of Sumedha the Wise, Hatthipāla brothers, etc. Sumedha the Wise first went forth and reaching Dhammika Mountain found a dwelling place readily prepared by Sakka, King of Devas. Then only he became a bhikkhu. Similarly Hatthipāla brothers went forth first and when pursued by the whole country led by royal parents, they became bhikkhus. Therefore it may be said renunciation of Sumedha the Wise, Hatthipāla brothers etc., is the cause and the bhikkhu's life is the effect.

[ 216 ] The Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary gives the exposition in accordance with the first interpretation. (This is mentioned in detail in the Chapter on Miscelleny.) Though Sumedha the Wise, Hatthipāla brothers, etc., renounced the world first and became bhikkhus afterwards, they did so only because they wanted a bhikkhu's life. Therefore even though renunciation took place first it may be said that a bhikkhu's life which follows later is the real cause. (For example, to construct a building, the wood is cut first. Although cutting of wood precedes construction, the wood is cut with the intention of constructing the building, Therefore it should be said the desire to build the building is the cause and cutting of the wood is its effect.)

Five kinds of forest dwelling.

As expounded in the Vinaya Parivāra Ekuttarikanaya pañcaka and Upāli Pañhā Dhūtaṅga Vagga, forest dwelling is of five kinds:

(i) Dwelling in the forest because of stupidity, dullness of mind, not knowing the advantages and their causes;
(ii) Dwelling in the forest with an evil desire, "If I go and dwell in the forest, people will support me generously as a forest dweller";
(iii) Dwelling in the forest because of insanity;
(iv) Dwelling in the forest because the practice is praised by the Buddhas and the virtuous; and
(v) Dwelling in the forest because one has few wishes, contentment and such virtues.

Only the last two of these kinds of forest dwelling are praiseworthy.

Perfection of Renunciation is not a matter of where one lives. Defilement of sense desire (Kilesakāma), craving for pleasant sensuous objects, is liable to arise anywhere. This defilement of sense desire should be eradicated [ 217 ] wherever it appears and not be permitted to thrive. Emancipation from defilement of sense desire by eradication in this way is the true characteristic of renunciation.

As for Emancipation from pleasant objects of sense desire, there are examples of Sumedha the Wise, Hatthipāla brothers etc., who went forth as far as the Himalayas. Therefore it may be asked whether it is necessary for those who wish to fulfil Perfection of Renunciation (Emancipation from pleasant objects of sense desire) to go forth as far as the Himalayas. One should do so if possible, or if one wishes to or if circumstances favour. In the Jātaka Stories concerning renunciation, the majority went forth up to the Himalayas. They did so as circumstances were favourable to them.

According to the Māghadeva Jātaka of the Ekaka Nipāta and the Nimi Jātaka of the Maha Nipāta, the continuous line of rulers numbering eighty-four thousand beginning from King Maghadeva to King Nimi went forth from household life to homeless one as soon as a single hair on the head turned grey. However, none of them went up to the Himalayas. They repaired only to the royal mango grove near their capital city of Mithila. It is said that by strenuous practice of meditation they attained Jhānas and were reborn in Brahma realms. It is evident from these stories that, although not travelling as far as the Himalayas, just leaving the place where mental defilement of greed thrives is sufficient for successful fulfilment of Perfection of Renunciation. The eighty-four thousand kings such as Maghadeva completely abandoned their luxurious palaces, and by living in the mango grove their Perfection of Renunciation was fulfilled.

Therefore Perfection of Renunciation can be fulfilled by anyone who abandons completely the place where his mental defilement of greed flourishes and without establishing such new resorts, dwells in a suitable place free from such defilement.

[ 218 ] Two kinds of Renunciation.

Renunciation of Bodhisattas is of two kinds:

(i) Renunciation when they are young (and single), and
(ii) Renunciation when they are old (and married).

Sumedha the Wise, Hatthipāla brothers, etc., renounced the worldly life to escape from (bonds of) pleasant objects of sense desire, namely, luxuries of their palaces or homes. Although the Jātakas referred to them as examples of those who fulfilled the Perfection of Renunciation they were then mere youths still unmarried. They were possessors of pleasant objects of sense desire, but it may be said that their ties to them were not so strong. Only older people living a household life with wife and children are tightly bound with these fetters of Vatthukāma. In this connection, it may be said that renunciation by old married people is more difficult than that by younger persons. But some could point out that the renunciation by the Bodhisatta Prince Temiya made at a time when he was only sixteen and unmarried was really an arduous one. But his difficulty arose not from the bonds of pleasant objects of sense desire but from the great troubles of having to pretend to be cripple, deaf and dumb to make his renunciation possible. Therefore although he faced much difficulty when contriving to make his renunciation, when he actually did so he encountered little difficulty because he had only few fetters of pleasant objects of sense desire.

The Aṭṭhasālinī gives in the chapter on Perfection of Renunciation full accounts of Pāramī fulfilled by the Bodhisatta when he was Prince Somanassa. Prince Hatthipāla. Prince Ayoghara, etc., in innumerable existences. The Commentary gives the special names of Paramattha Pāramī, Supreme Perfection, to the Perfection of Renunciation fulfilled by King Cūḷa Sutasoma.

[ 219 ] In the case of Prince Somanassa. Prince Ayoghara, Prince Hatthipāla, and Prince Temiya, they were youthful persons at the time of their renunciation. Renunciation by King Mahā Janaka was more difficult than theirs because he was an older and married man. He became a bhikkhu without the knowledge of his queen, lesser queens and royal attendants. And only at the time of renunciation that he faced difficulty as he was pursued by his queens and retinue to persuade him to return to them. They had not taken any measures to ensure that he would not go forth as a bhikkhu or renounce the worldly life.

As for the eighty-four thousand kings such as Maghadeva they openly and publicly declared their intention to renounce. In spite of the entreaties of their families, they refused to yield and made their renunciation. But they did not go very far. They dwelt in their own mango groves near the palaces.

In contrast to them all, King Cūḷa Sutasoma announced his intention of leaving the world as he was deeply stirred by spiritual sense of urgency on seeing a grey hair on his head. Although his queens, royal parents and the assembled citizens prayed in tears to give up his plan, he remained firm and indifferent to their earnest pleas and went away till he reached the Himalayas. Therefore renunciation of King Cūḷa Sutasoma was far more powerful than those of King Maghadeva etc., On this account the Commentator has described the Perfection of Renunciation fulfilled by King Cūḷa Sutasoma as of the highest type, Paramattha Pāramī.

Here ends the Chapter on Perfection of Renunciation.

[ 220 ] (a) The Perfection of Wisdom

(Pāna-Pāramī).

Three kinds of Wisdom

1. The Vibhaṅga of the Abhidhammā, in the section on Ñāṇa Vibhaṅga, mentions three kinds of Wisdom (Paññā):

(a) Cintāmaya Paññā,
(b) Sutamaya Paññā, and
(c) Bhāvanāmaya Paññā.

(a) Knowledge of various kinds whether low or noble, including various crafts and professions etc., which are acquired through one's own reasoning and not through asking others or hearing about it from others, is called Cintāmaya Paññā (cinta, 'thinking'; maya, 'formed of'; hence, literally, wisdom formed of thinking.)

This kind of wisdom includes not only thoughts on mundane affairs but also on things concerning Dhamma matters. Therefore it comprises the knowledge of ordinary worldly things such as carpentry, agriculture etc., as well as the knowledge of things of Dhamma nature such as Generosity, Morality, Concentration and Vipassanā Insight Meditation. The Omniscience (Sabbaññuta Ñāṇa) of the Buddhas may even be called Cintāmaya Paññā if one wishes to do so because the Bodhisatta, Prince Siddhattha, had thought out by himself the practice leading to Omniscience without hearing of it from anyone and become Omniscient.

However, Wisdom as the fourth Perfection to be fulfilled by the Bodhisatta should be considered as only the group of fundamental knowledge necessary for the attainment of knowledge of the Path and Fruition State and Omniscience. We are not concerned here with the group of Wisdom which is acquired in the final existence of a Bodhisatta entitling him to Buddhahood. Bodhisattas fulfilling the Perfection of [ 221 ] Wisdom before the last life practised only up to the first part of the Ninth stage (Saṅkhārupekkhā Ñāṇa. 'Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations') out of the ten stages of Vipassanā Insight. The final part of this Saṅkhārupekkhā Ñāṇa leads on directly to the knowledge of the Path. So Bodhisattas do not attempt to go beyond the first part until their last life, for should they do so, they would have accordingly attained Magga Phala and become Ariyas and passed into Nibbāna in those existences; they would not become a Buddha though. Therefore it should be noted that as a Bodhisatta, the Perfection of Wisdom is fulfilled only up to the first part of the Saṅkhārupekkhā Ñāṇa.

(b) Knowledge gained by listening to the wise who talk either on their own or at one's request when one is unable to think out or reason by oneself is called Sutamaya Paññā. (Suta, 'hearing', maya, 'formed of'; hence, wisdom formed of hearing.) Like Cintāmaya Paññā, this kind of wisdom is of very extensive nature. The only difference between the two is that in the first, wisdom is gained through one's own thought or reasoning and in the second by hearing from others.

(c) The kind of Wisdom gained at the time when one is actually experiencing the Jhāna or Phala States is called Bhāvanāmaya Paññā.

The Abhidhammā Vibhaṅga, in the Chapter on the Ñāṇa Vibhaṅga, gives types of wisdom in groups of one kind, two kinds etc., up to ten kinds.

All these groups of wisdom, however, may be taken as coming under the three types of wisdom given above. For example, in the Vibhaṅga, after the group of the three kinds of wisdom, namely, Cintāmaya etc., are enumerated Dānamaya Paññā, Sīlamaya Paññā and Bhāvanāmaya Paññā. Dānamaya Paññā is wisdom formed of generosity. Volition associated with generosity is of three kinds namely, volition that arises before, volition that arises during and volition that arises after the offering. The wisdom associated with these volitions in each case is Dānamaya Paññā. [ 222 ] Similarly in the case of observance of morality, wisdom that arises with the intention, "I will observe the precepts", wisdom that arises while observing and wisdom that arises on reflection after observing the precepts, all three are Sīlamaya Paññā.

If the Dānamaya Paññā and Sīlamaya Paññā have been deduced through one's process of thinking and reasoning, then it is to be classed as Cintāmaya Paññā; if it has been gained through hearing from others, they are to be included in Sutamaya Paññā. Other kinds of wisdom can similarly be classified under the same three heads of Cintāmaya Paññā etc.

The teaching "paripucchanto buddham jānaṃ paññā paramitaṃ gantvā," "accomplishing the Perfection of Wisdom by learning from the wise," in the Buddhavaṃsa clearly indicates that the Buddha regards the Sutamaya Paññā as the basic wisdom. This is because in this world one who has not yet acquired basic wisdom cannot know any thing through thinking it out for himself; he has to learn it first from the wise by listening to them. Therefore the Buddha has expounded that one who wishes to fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom should first acquire knowledge from the wise before he has any basic wisdom.

In brief, wisdom through hearing (Sutamaya Paññā) should be acquired before Wisdom through Thinking (Cintāmaya Paññā).

The Commentaries such as the Aṭṭhasālinī describe the innumerable lives of the Bodhisatta, for example, as the wise men Vidhura, Mahā Govinda, Kudāla, Araka, Bodhi the Wondering Ascetic, Mahosadha etc., when he had to fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom. In these lives, the Bodhisatta had already acquired basic wisdom; he also possessed therefore Cintāmaya Paññā. As his basic wisdom was already great enough, acquiring Sutamaya Paññā was no longer his chief concern in those existences.

[ 223 ] Four kinds of Kavi.

The Catukka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya describes four kinds of Kavi:

(1) Cinta kavi,
(2) Suta kavi,
(3) Attha kavi, and
(4) Paṭibhāna kavi.

(The term kavi is derived from the root kava which means 'to praise'; so a person who praises things worthy of praises is called kavi meaning a 'wise person.')

(1) One who is capable of knowing a given matter by thinking it out for himself is called a Cinta kavi, a wise man of original thinking. It is the province of such persons to sing verses lauding those deserving praise. Thus Cinta kavi is one who composes poems relying solely on his own thinking.

(2) One who puts into verse what one knows through hearing is called a Suta kavi.

(3) One who does not know through his original thinking or through learning from others but interprets the meaning of a difficult point based upon the knowledge he already possesses of similar problems is called an Attha kavi, a wise man who explains meaning. He writes verses based on a given subject-matter.

(4) One who, without having recourse to thinking out himself or listening to others or referring to what is already known, has the ability to penetrate at once the meaning of a given subject is called a Paṭibhāna kavi, a wise man of ready speech (like the Venerable Vaṅgisa Thera of the Buddha's time).

The nature of Wisdom.

Wisdom is a separate mental concomitant, one of the ultimate realities. In the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, various names such as paññindriya, paññā, pajānana etc. are given to [ 224 ] wisdom, because it is the characteristic of the Abhidhammā to give complete details of everything that should be taught about each subject. The principal term for wisdom is paññindriya made up of paññā and indriya.

It is called paññā, wisdom, because it is conducive to understanding in all aspects the Four Truths or the Three Characteristics of impermanence (Anicca), suffering (Dukkha), and non-self (Anatta).

It is called faculty, indriya, (controlling or governing) because it can overcome ignorance (avijjā) and delusion (moha) or because it dominates in understanding the real nature. Paññā, wisdom, has the characteristic of creating light. Just as darkness is dispelled as soon as light appears in a dark room; even so, where ignorance blinds us, as soon as wisdom appears, ignorance is dispelled enabling us to see clearly. Therefore the Buddha has said, Paññā samā ābhā natthi 'There is no light like wisdom'.

Wisdom has the characteristic of perceiving things with discrimination. Just as a clever physcian discerns which food is suitable for his patient and which food is not, so when wisdom arises it enables one to distinguish between what is meritorious and what is not.

Wisdom also has the characteristic of penetrating the real nature as it is. It may be likened to an arrow which, shot by a clever archer, penetrates the target unerringly.

An important point to note with regard to this characteristic of wisdom: Genuine wisdom is knowing a thing as it really is and such a knowledge is blameless. That is why in the Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha, the mental concomitant of wisdom (Paññā Cetasika) is included in the 'Beautiful' (Sobhaṇa) types of mental concomitants.

Questions arise concerning wisdom with reference to the action of Sulasā in the Sulasā Jātaka of the Aṭṭhaka Nipāta. In Bārānasi, a prostitute by the name of Sulasā saved the life of robber Suttaka who was [ 225 ] about to be executed. She made him her husband and they lived together. Wanting to possess her jewellery, the robber persuaded her to put on jewelled ornaments worth one lakh of money and go up a mountain with him. On reaching the top, he told her to take off all her jewellery and prepared to kill her. Then Sulasa thought to herself, "He is surely killing me; I must strike first and kill him by a ruse." So she begged of him, 'My dear, even though you are going to kill me, I lose no love for you; nearing my death, may I pay my respects to you from the four quarters, front, back and the sides.' Not suspecting her stratagem, the robber allowed her to do so. After paying respects to the robber, who was standing on the edge of a precipice, from the front and the sides, when she came behind him, she pushed him over the precipice with all her might and killed him.

The Bodhisatta who was a Deva then living in the mountain remarked: 'Na hi sabbesu ṭhānesu puriso hoti paṇḍito; itipi paṇḍito hoti tattha tattha vicakkhaṇā" 'Not in all circumstances is the man the wise one: woman is also wise and far sighted."

Some raise the question as to whether it is proper for the Bodhisatta Deva to praise Sulasa as being wise. Sulasa's intention to kill the robber is a matter of committing the wrong deed of killing and cannot be associated with paññā cetasika.

In reply to that some say that Sulasa's knowledge was not true paññā. Of the three kinds of knowledge, namely, knowledge through perception (saññā), knowledge through consciousness (viññāṇa), and knowledge through wisdom (paññā). Sulasā's was knowledge through consciousness only, that is to say, through exercise of imagination. That knowledge through consciousness has been referred to here as paññā,

Others wrongly assert that of the two views: wrong view (micchā diṭṭhi) and right view (sammā diṭṭhi); Sulasā had wrong view and the Bodhisatta Deva was referring to her view as paññā and not praising her because of the [ 226 ] faculty of wisdom, and therefore it is not against Abhidhammā.

Both these answers, taking consciousness (viññāṇa) and view (diṭṭhi) as wisdom (paññā) contrary to the principles of Abhidhammā, are entirely wrong.

Sulasā's knowledge that she would win over the robber if she adopted a ruse was true knowledge and was, therefore, wisdom. One should not doubt whether genuine wisdom can be involved in matters connected with evil actions. For example, it is blameless to know discriminatingly about alcoholic drinks which should not be indulged in and which lead to immoral actions, as to which ones contain more or less alcohol, how much does each cost, what will happen if one drinks them etc., It begins to be immoral only from the moment one thinks of drinking the intoxicant.

Similarly, one can make a thorough study of all the various views and beliefs in the world without any exception, differentiating between what is correct and reasonable and what is wrong. Thus studying and getting to know about them as they really are, whether right or wrong, is entirely faultless. Only when one misconstrues a wrong view to be right is one at fault.

So in Sulasa's case, knowing "I will win over him if I use a ruse" is knowing rightly; it is knowing through wisdom and therefore blameless. But since the moment of her decision to kill her husband by means of a stratagem her action had become blameworthy, immoral. It is only with reference to the correct knowledge which initially arose in her before the deed of killing that the Bodhisatta Deva praised, saying she was wise.

As has been said above, we should distinguish clearly between the knowledge about evil on the one hand and the commisson of evil such as killing on the other. If one persists in the belief that knowledge about evil is not true wisdom, one would make the error of thinking that the great Omniscience of the Buddha itself is not free from blemish.

[ 227 ] Through his supreme Wisdom, the Buddha knows all there is to know, everything moral or immoral; hence the name of Omniscience. If true Wisdom has nothing to do with anything evil, then the Buddha would have no knowledge whatever of evil things; indeed, the Buddha's Wisdom is very extensive, infinite and is thus known as Omniscience.

In brief, the Buddha knows everything, good or evil. But since he has uprooted all latent defilments, he has no desire to commit any thing evil, not to say of the actual deed. Thus reflecting on the attributes of knowing everything that is evil, of having abandoned what should be abandoned and of refraining from doing any evil, we should develop faith in the Buddha.

Again, we should also examine the story of Mahosadha the Wise described in the Mahosadha Jātaka. In that story, Cūḷanī Brahmadatta with rulers of his vassal states surrounded and attacked the royal city of King Videha who had as his right-hand man, Mahosadha the Wise. Mahosadha master-minded the defence of the city devising various stratagem to deceive the enemy hordes, to break down their morale and finally to force them retreat to all directions in a disorderly rout. Should we opine that deceptive measures adopted by Mahosadha, not being moral undertaking do not count as Wisdom, there would be no occasion for the Bodhisatta to fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom. As a matter of fact, all the strategic devices employed by Mahosadha are the products of the Bodhisatta's Wisdom. The Buddha has therefore specifically mentioned the story of Mahosadha as an example of how the Bodhisatta had fulfilled his Perfection of Wisdom.

In view of what has been said, it should be noted that in the story of Sulasa, the Mountain Deva praised Sulasa as a wise person because she indeed had Wisdom.

(This is an explanation on doubtful points with regard to characteristics cf Wisdom.)

[ 228 ] The kinds of Wisdom

The definition of wisdom given in the Commentaries such as the Aṭṭhasālinī etc., as the knowledge of or the knowledge leading to full comprehension of the Four Noble Truths and the Three Characteristics refers to the highest (Ukkaṭṭha) type of Wisdom. There are also certain types of Wisdom which are much lower.

The Commentary on the Abhidhammā Vibhaṅga in expounding on Cintāmaya Paññā and Sutamaya Paññā describes the kinds of Wisdom involved in 'manual labour for earning one's livelihood' (Kammāyatana) and in 'skills for earning one's livelihood (Sippāyatana). Each is again divided into two kinds, lower and higher. Carpentry is an example of a lower type of manual labour. Farming, trading are of a higher type. Mat-making, weaving etc., are of lower forms of skill for earning one's living; writing, calculating etc., are higher forms of skill for earning one's living.

The essential distinction between forms of livelihood is that when manual labour is done for livelihood without taking special training, it is Kammāyatana type; when skill for earning livelihood is acquired after special training, it is called Sippayatana. When special training is for skill in vocal accomplishments it is called Vijjāthāna.

When we discriminate one fire from another our discrimination is not based on the quality of the fuel used for burning but on the quantity of the fuel and we say "a small fire" or "a big fire". So also in the case of wisdom, discrimination should be done not on the basis of the quality of what is known but rather on the basis of the degree or extent of what is known and we should speak of wisdom as "weak" or "powerful", in other words--"simple" or "profound". We should not restrict ourselves to higher forms of knowledge as expounded in the Commentary but also recognize lower forms also as wisdom.

[ 229 ] Therefore one who wishes to fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom should do so irrespective of the standard of wisdom whether low or high; and regarding things unknown, one should approach the wise for learning from them. Therefore it is said in the Buddhavaṃsa: "Paripucchanto buddhaṃ paññāpāramitaṃ gantvā". meaning "repeatedly asking the wise, having reached the Perfection of Wisdom."

Seven ways of developing wisdom.

The Sammohavinodani, Commentary to the Abhidhammā Vibhaṅga gives seven ways of developing wisdom in the chapter on the Foundations of Steadfast Mindfulness (Satipaṭṭhāna):

(1) Paripuccnakatā--asking the wise again and again. (This is in accordance with the Pāḷi phrase quoted above.)
(2) Vatthuvisadakiriyā--making objects both inside and outside the body pure. (For internal cleanliness, one's hair, nails and beard should not be too long. The body should not be soiled with sweat and dirt. For external cleanliness, one's clothes should not be old and bad smelling; one's dwelling should be kept clean. When there is impurity inside and outside the body, the wisdom that arises is like the thick flame produced from a dirty wick soaked in the turbid oil of an unclean lamp. In order to have clean and bright wisdom which is like the flame of a clean lamp, one should keep one's body clean both internally and externally.)
(3) Indriya samattā paṭipadanā--bringing the faculties, such as faith etc., into perfect balance.

(There are five faculties¹⁸ which control consciousness and mental concomitants of beings. If the faith faculty is [ 230 ] too strong, the other four faculties are bound to be weak; consequently, energy faculty cannot exercise its function of giving support and encouragement to exertion; mindfulness faculty cannot fulfil its task of minding the object of attention; concentration faculty cannot prevent distraction of mind; and wisdom faculty fails to discern. When faith faculty is in excess an attempt should be made to moderate it and bring it in line with others either by reflecting on the Dhamma that will normalise it or avoiding to reflect on the Dhamma that will promote and strengthen it.

(If the energy faculty is too strong, faith faculty will not be able to perform its function; the rest of the faculties also cannot perform their respective functions. This excess of energy should be corrected by developing tranquility. The same holds true in the case of each of the remaining faculties.)

What is particularly praised by the wise and virtuous is balancing faith with wisdom, and concentration with energy. If one is strong in faith and weak in wisdom, one will have faith in unworthy ones to no purpose. (Being weak in wisdom, one is unable to discern critically who is deserving of reverence and who is not; mistaking what is not true 'Buddha, Dhamma, Saṃgha' for genuine ones, one's devotion is then of no avail and fruitless.) Mistaken belief of those who wrongly devote themselves to false Buddha or false Dhamma is not true faith but only wrong and harmful conclusion (micchādhimokkha).

If wisdom is strong and faith is weak, one will miss the correct path and follow the wrong one which leads to the side of cunning. To bring such a person to the right path is as hard to cure as a patient suffering from ill-effects of wrong medicine. For example, these are two kinds of giving (i)gift of volition (cetanā dāna) and (ii) gift of material objects (vatthu dāna). A person who has cunning ways of thinking might consider that it is only volition not the material objects that would be fruitful in future; therefore it is not necessary to offer material things as dāna; gift of [ 231 ] volition is sufficient. Such a person who fails to do meritorious deeds of alms giving, because of his cunning, would be reborn in the lower planes of existence.

Only when faith and wisdom are in balance can one have proper faith in deserving ones and with the absence of cunning there can develop many advantages. Energy and concentration should also be in balance; when energy is weak and concentration strong, idleness (kosajja) will result: without any activity but assuming an air of calmness as if in good concentration, one is overwhelmed by indolence.

When energy is strong and concentration weak, there will be agitation and excitement but no steadiness. Overwhelmed by restlessness (uddhacca) one may be distracted with the thought, "If this work does not yield any good result as expected, it will not be suitable for me. I would abandon it and try something else.

When energy and concentration are in equilibrium, idleness (kosajja) and restlessness (uddhacca) get no chance to arise. Balancing of these two leads to quick attainment of Jhāna or Absorption Concentration (Appanā).

However, mindfulness-faculty can never be in excess; there may be only its shortage. In the Text, it is likened to salt, a necessary ingredient of all food preparations or to a Prime Minister who attends to all the royal business. Therefore while maintaining the maximum possible mindfulness, faculties in each of the two pairs, faith and wisdom, energy and concentration should be kept in perfect balance with each other. Excess of any is a disadvantage. In this connection, the venerable U Budh has made the following comment in his Mahā Satipaṭṭhāna-Nissaya

Excess of faith leads to over enthusiasm,
Excess of wisdom leads to craftiness,
[ 232 ] Excess of energy leads to restlessness,
Excess of concentration leads to ennui (mental weariness),
But there is never an excess of mindfulness.

(4) Duppaññapuggala parivajjanaṃ-avoiding persons without wisdom.

(Duppañña means an individual who has no wisdom to discern penetratingly such groups of Dhamma as the aggregates (Khandha), the bases (āyatana) etc., One should keep oneself far away from such people.)

(5) Paññavanta puggalasevana-associating with the wise.

(The wise means persons who are possessed of the fifty characteristics of the knowledge [ 233 ] of arising and falling (Udaya bhaya Ñāṇa). For details of the fifty characteristics of Udhaya bhaya Ñāṇa, Paṇisambhidāmagga may be consulated¹⁹.)

Concerning both items nos (4) and (5), the commentator is only describing the developments of the highest (ukkaṭṭha) type of wisdom. In item (4), a person without wisdom means one who cannot discern penetratingly the group of Dhammas such as aggregates and the bases; a person with penetrating knowledge of such Dhammas can only be one who is of great wisdom. But there are those, who though not possessing wisdom to discern such subtle Dhammas as aggregates and bases, know ordinary matters concerning practice of Dhamma: "It is proper to make such offering; it is not proper to do so. Precepts should be observed thus; they should not be observed otherwise". They also know matters concerning worldly living, "This act will prolong life; this act will shorten one's life". Such persons cannot be said to be entirely devoid of wisdom. One should cultivate association with them too.

In item (5) also, by defining a wise person as one who is possessed of the fifty characteristics of the knowledge of arising and falling (Udayabbaya Ñāṇa) the commentator is referring by way of excellence (Ukkaṭṭha naya) only to the wise who are most highly advanced in Vipassanā Meditation.

But with regard to acquiring knowledge, the Buddha has expounded in the Buddhavaṃsa: "Taking the example of a bhikkhu going on alms round to all the houses in serial order without discrimination, a learner should approach whoever can answer his questions, regardless of his social or educational status. Therefore he should avoid only a totally ignorant one and approach all who can help him in his quest of knowledge.

In short, avoiding only those who are completely incapable of answering any question, one should associate with those who can furnish him with even the slightest information he is seeking.

According to the Buddhavaṃsa, in acquiring wisdom one should first ask and learn from the wise to develop wisdom through hearing, Sutamaya paññā. Then, if one is not clear about any point, one should reflect on it and think about it, and thus develop wisdom by means of thinking, Cintāmaya panna.

In the Discourse to the Kālāmas (Aṅguttara Nikāya, TikaNipāta, Dutiya Paṇṇāsaka, 2-Mahāvagga, 5-Kālāma Sutta) the Buddha was told by the Kālāmas that many preachers visited their place, that all of these visiting preachers praised only their own doctrines denouncing and condemning others and that they had doubt and perplexity as to which doctrine to accept and follow. The Buddha's reply to them may be summarized as "you should accept the doctrine which you find after due consideration to be free of fault."

This Discourse shows that one should first acquire Sutamaya paññā by listening to the talks of preachers. and then think over which doctrine is blameless by using the Cintāmaya panna.

[ 234 ] Moreover, in the Pāṭha Jātaka, Dasaka Nipāta, 9-Mahā Dhammapāla Jātaka, when the great teacher of Takkasīla come in person to the village of Dhammapāla to find out why the young people of the village did not die before the end of their life span, Mahādhammapāla (the village headman) who would be reborn as King Suddhodana in time to come replied, "We listen to all who come and preach; after listening we ponder upon their preaching we do not heed what the immoral persons teach, instead we forsake them; we accept only the teachings of the moral ones with which we are delighted and which we follow. Therefore, in our village, the young ones never die before the end of their life span".

This Jātaka story also clearly shows that one acquires wisdom first by means of Sutamaya Ñāṇa, and then accepts only what is confirmed to be true by Cintāmaya Ñāṇa.

Associating with the wise.

The expression 'associating with the wise' does not mean mere approaching a wise person and staying with him day and night. It implies learning and acquiring some knowledge from the person who is possessed of wisdom.

The advice, "Do not associate with the fool" given as one of the Blessings in the Maṅgala Sutta does not necessarily present staying with a foolish person. One may even live with him for the purpose of coaxing and persuading him to the right path. In such a case one is not going against the advice of the Maṅgala Sutta. An example is the sojourn of the Buddha, in the Uruvela Grove in the company of ascetics of wrong view (to help them abandon their wrong path).

Thus, only when one accepts the view and follows the practices of a foolish person can one be said to be associating with the fool. Likewise the advice given in the Maṅgala Sutta exhorting one to associate with the wise is well taken, not by merely keeping company with him but only when one acquires some form of knowledge (from him), be it only a little.

[ 235 ] (6) Gambhīrananacariya paccavekkhaṇā-reflecting on the nature of Dhamma which is the resort of profound wisdom. (Herein, wisdom is like fire which burns all inflammable things whether big or small. Depending on the size of what is burning, fire is said to be a small fire or a big one. In the same way, wisdom knows everything there is to know; it is called small, manifest or profound depending on what is known is small, manifest or profound. The Dhamma which is the resort of profound wisdom comprises aggregates, bases etc., The wisdom which arises from the knowledge of these profound subjects is what is meant by profound wisdom. Such profound wisdom is as numerous as there are profound Dhammas. Analytical review of all these numerous profound Dhammas leads to the development of wisdom.)

(7) Tadadhimuttatā-Having the inclination towards developing wisdom. (In all four postures of lying, sitting, standing and walking one should be only inclined to development of wisdom. Having such a mind is one of the causes of developing wisdom.)

Resume in verse by U Budh:

1. Asking again and again,
2. Keeping things clean,
3. Having faculties in balance,
4. Avoiding the fool,
5. Associating with the wise,
6. Pondering deeply, and
7. Having the mind bent on development of wisdom constitute seven ways of developing of wisdom.

The qualities of Wisdom.

(1) When Wisdom takes a predominant place in performing multifarious functions, it acquires the name of Vīmaṃsādhipati, one of the four Predominence-conditions-

[ 236 ] (2) Forming constituent parts of the twenty-two Controlling Faculties are four different faculties which are concerned with wisdom, (a) the Wisdom that is included in the thirty-nine mundane consciousness associated with knowledge (lokīñaṇasampayutta citta is called Paññindriya; (b) the Wisdom accompanying the consciousness that arises at the moment of the first stage of Enlightenment (Sotāpatti Magga Citta) is known as anaññātaññassāmit' indriya; (c) the Wisdom that arises with the Fruition State of Arahantship (Arahatta phala) is called Aññātāvindriya; (d) the Wisdom that is associated with the six intermediate supramundane consciousness (that comes between the Sotapanna and Arahatta stage) is termed Aññindriya.

The Wisdom that should be fulfilled as a Perfection is concerned only with mundane consciousness; thus it is included in the thirteen kinds of moral consciousness (Kusala Ñāṇa Sampayutta Citta) of the thirty nine Lokīñāṇa Sampayutta Citta. (The non-functional consciousness (Kriyā Citta) belongs only to Arahants; it is not the concern of Bodhisattas who are still worldlings; the Resultant Consciousness (Vipāka Citta) arises without any special effort as a consequence of one's past Kamma. Therefore the wisdom that is associated with these two types of consciousness does not count as Perfection.) Bodhisattas concentrate only on the mundane wisdom so as to fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom to its highest degree.

In the 37 Constituents of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma) are included the five Controlling Faculties (Indriya), one of which is Faculty of Wisdom (Paññindriya); this Faculty of Wisdom is of two kinds: mundane and supramundane. The supramundane kind is not included in the Perfection of Wisdom developed by a Bodhisatta. Only the wisdom that is associated with mundane moral consciousness which arises while undertaking purification of morality and purification of mind previous to attainment of Magga Phala States is the Perfection of Wisdom fulfilled by Bodhisattas.

(3) Similarly, in the other four constituents of the Bodhipakkhiya are included factors of wisdom (Paññā) under [ 237 ] different names. Thus in the Five Powers (Bala) it is known as Power of Wisdom (Paññā bala); in the Four Means of Accomplishment (Iddhipāda) as Accomplishment by Wisdom (Vīmaṃsiddhipāda); in the Seven Factors of Enlightenments (Bojjhaṅga) as Investigation of Dhamma (Dhammavicaya Sambojjhaṅga) and in the Eight Constituents of the Noble Path (Ariya Maggaṅga) as Right View (Sammā-diṭṭhi).

As with Faculty of Wisdom (Paññindriya), these various factors of wisdom under different names are developed at two different levels: mundane and supramundane. The Wisdom that accompanies the supramundane consciousness is not included in the Perfection of Wisdom as fulfilled by Bodhisattas. It is only the wisdom associated with mundane moral consciousness which arises while undertaking purification of morality and purification of mind previous to attainments of Magga Phala States that counts as the Perfection of Wisdom fulfilled by Bodhisattas.

Contemplating on these special qualities of wisdom, may you fulfil the Perfection of Wisdom to its highest possible stage.

Here ends the Chapter on the Perfection of Wisdom.

(e) The Perfection of Energy. (Viriya Pāramī)

Bodhisatta's exertion of Energy.

In matters of the Perfection of Energy, the Texts give the example of a maned lion whose nature is to put forth maximum effort whether in hunting a rabbit or in hunting an elephant. He does not exert less in hunting a rabbit because it is a small animal; nor does he strive more in hunting an elephant because of its great size. In both cases, he uses equal degree of exertion.

Following the ways of a maned lion, a Bodhisatta while fulfilling the Perfection of Energy, does not make less effort for ordinary tasks nor put forth more energy for [ 238 ] more arduous ones. He always makes the same maximum exertion, whether the task is small or great.

Deep impression of past exertions on the Buddha.

As a result of the habit of employing uniform energy whether attending to big or small affairs in past lives as a Bodhisatta, when he finally became an Enlightened One, he made equal efforts when giving discourses. He did not reduce his effort and deliver an address casually to a single person; neither did he put forth more energy to enable the audience at the extreme end hear him when addressing a huge assembly as, for example, at the time of delivering the First Sermon. He maintained an even voice putting forth equal energy for both occasions.

Special Glory of the Buddha. The Buddha being blessed with unthinkable majestic glory, his voice uttered with uniform exertion reaches all who listen. If there is only one person listening to him, only that person hears the discourse. When there are many people, each person whether near or far from the Buddha hears him clearly. (When the Chief Disciple Venerable Sāriputta gave the Discourse of Samacitta Suttanta, as the audience was very large, his normal voice could not reach all of them; he had to make them all hear- him with the help of Supernormal Psychic Powers of Accomplishments (Iddhividha Abhiññāṇa); he has to use the 'Abhiññā loud-speaker,' so to say. However, it was not necessary for the Buddha to do so to make everyone in the audience hear him.) This is the special glory of the Buddha.

Every Buddha exerts himself to fulfill the Perfection of Energy in all his previous lives as a Bodhisatta. In addition, in his last birth when he would gain Enlightenment, he renounces the world and makes strenuous efforts to practise austerities (dukkaracariyā) at least for seven days. Having performed the austerities, as the time draws near for Buddhahood, he sits on a seat of grass at the foot of the Bodhi tree and makes a resolute effort with a firm determination: "Let only my skin remain; let only my sinews remain; let only my bones remain; let all the blood [ 239 ] and flesh dry up, I will not rise from this seat until I have attained Omniscience (Sabbaññuta Ñāṇa)".

Through this effort, he developed the Knowledge of Insight as powerful as a thunder bolt (Mahā Vajira Vipassanā Ñāṇa) which enables him to realize first the law of Dependent Origination, followed by the knowledge of the three characteristics of impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and unsubstantiality (anatta) in all material and mental phenomena (Rūpa and Nāma).

Energy (viriya) like Wisdom (paññā), is a mental concomitant, but whereas wisdom is, as stated before, always associated with moral consciousness, energy being a miscellaneous type of concomitant (pakiṇṇaka cetasika) is associated with both moral and immoral consciousness and also of indeterminate type (abyākata) which is neither moral nor immoral. Consequently energy can be wholesome or unwholesome or indeterminate. Effort which is wholesome is known as Right Effort (Sammā vāyāma); effort employed for wrong purpose is unwholesome and is called Wrong Effort (Micchā vāyāma). It is only the Right Effort which should be cultivated to the fullest extent as the Perfection of Energy.

Right Exertion (Sammappadhāna).

Right Effort (Sammā vāyāma) is also known as Right Exertion (Sammappadhāna). The meaning is the same. In exposition on Sammappadhāna of the Abhidhammā Vibhaṅga the Buddha has explained four kinds of Right Exertion:

(1) The endeavour to prevent the arising at any time, any place on any object, of evil which has not yet arisen; or which one cannot recall to mind of having arisen at a certain time, at a certain place, on a certain object.

(2) The endeavour to put away evil that has a risen.

(As a matter of fact it is impossible to abandon evil that had already arisen or that had arisen and passed away. The evil that had arisen in the past had ceased; it [ 240 ] is no longer existing. What does not exist cannot be removed. What is to be understood here is that one should strive to prevent arising of new evil which is of similar nature to the one that has arisen before.)

(3) The endeavour to bring about the arising of the good which has not yet arisen or which one cannot recall to mind of having arisen at a certain time, a certain place, on a certain object.

(4) The endeavour to maintain and further develop the good that has arisen or that is arising. (Here also what is to be understood is that one should strive to bring about the repeated arising of the good similar to the one that has already arisen.)

Eleven factors of developing energy.

The Satipaṭṭhana Vibhaṅga Commentary and the Mahā Satipaṭṭhana Sutta Commentary describe eleven factors of development of energy.

(1) Reflecting on the dangers of lower worlds of existence (Apāya bhaya paccavekkhaṇata).

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus, "If I am lax in making effort I may be reborn in the realms of misery (apāya). Of the four realms of misery, if I am reborn in the realm of continuous suffering (niraya), I will suffer intense pains resulting from numerous, terrible tortures; or if I am reborn in the animal world I may be subjected to all forms of ill-treatment by human beings; or if I am reborn in the ghost realm (peta loka) I will be tormented by hunger for long periods (of world cycles) between the appearance of one Buddha and of another: or if I am reborn in the demon world (asura loka), with my huge body, sixty or eighty cubits in length, of bones and skins only, I will suffer from heat, cold or winds. In any of these terrible rebirths, I will get no chance of developing the four Right Exertions. This life is my only opportunity to do so."

[ 241 ] (2) Perceiving the benefits accruing from development of energy (ānisaṃsadassāvitā).

Energy will develop in him who, reviewing and seeing the advantages of developing energy, reflects thus, "A lazy man can never get out of the cycle of rebirths (saṃsāra) and attain the supramundane Paths and Fruition States. Only the industrious can attain them. The beneficial result of making effort is the attainment of the supramundane Path and Fruition States which are so difficult to realize."

(3) Reviewing the path to be trodden (Gamanavīthipaccavekkhanatā).

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus, "All Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas and Noble Disciples of a Buddha realize their goals by walking along the path of industry. Exertion is the straight path trodden by the Noble Ones. No idle person can follow this road. Only the industrious take to this path."

(4) Honouring the alms food of devotees (Piṇḍpātāpacāyanatā).

This factor is the specific concern of bhikkhus. Energy will develop in him who, regarding with esteem and appreciation rich food offered by devotees, reflects thus. "These devotees are not my relatives; they give me this alms food not because they want to make their living by depending on me; they do so only because of the great merit that accrues from giving (to the Saṃgha). The Buddha does not allow us to eat alms food in a light minded, irresponsible manner, or to live an easy-going life. He permits it only for the purpose of practising the Dhamma to achieve liberation from saṃsāra. Alms food is not for the lazy or the indolent. Only men of diligence are worthy of it."

(5) Reflecting on the nobility of the inheritance (Dāyajjamahatta paccavekkhaṇatā).

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus, "The heritage of the Buddha known as 'the treasures of the [ 242 ] virtuous' to be received by his disciples is of seven kinds: faith (saddhā), morality (sīla), learning (suta), liberality (cāga), wisdom (paññā), moral shame (hiri), and moral dread (ottappa).

The indolent are not entiled to inherit from the Buddha. Just as bad children disowned by their parents cannot inherit from them, even so those who are lazy cannot receive the 'treasures of the virtuous' as heritage from the Buddha. Only men of diligence deserve this inheritance."

[ 243 ] (6) Reflecting on the nobility of the Teacher, the Buddha (Satthumahatta paccavekkhanatā)

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus: "My Teacher, the Buddha, is so noble that the ten-thousandworld universe shook when he took conception (as a Bodhisatta for his last life), when he renounced the world, when he became the Enlightened One, when he expounded the First Sermon (Dhammacakka pavattana Sutta), when he performed the Twin Miracle at Sāvatthi to defeat the heretics (titthiya), when he descended from the Tāvatiṃsa Deva world to Saṅkassa Nagara, when he renounced the Vital Principle (Āyusaṅkhāra) and when he passed into Parinibbāna. Being a true son (or daughter) of such a noble Buddha, should I remain care free and lazy without exerting myself to practise his Teachings?"

(7) Reflecting on the nobility of own lineage (Jāti mahatta paccavekkhaṇatā).

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus: "My lineage is not humble; I am descended from (the first king) Mahāsammata of pure and high caste; I am the brother of Rāhula who is the grandson of King Suddhodana and Queen Mahā Māyā, who belonged to the House of King Okkāka, one of the descendants of Mahāsammata; Rāhula is the Buddha's son; since I have also taken the name of Buddha's son of Sakya ancestry, we are brothers. Being of such noble ancestry I should not live a life of indolence but exert myself to practise the noble Teaching."

(8) Reflecting on the nobility of companions in the holy life (Sabrahmacārimahatta paccavekkhaṇatā).

Energy will develop in him who reflects thus: "My companions, in the holy life, the Venerables Sāriputta and Mahā Moggalāna as well as eighty Great Disciples who practised the noble Dhamma, have already realized the supramundane Paths and Fruition States. I should follow the way of the venerable companions in the holy life."

(9) Keeping away from those who are indolent (Kusīta puggala parivajjanata).

Energy will develop in him who avoids idle ones i.e., those who forsake all physical, verbal and mental activities to lie down and roll in sleep like a python that has eaten its fill.

(10) Associating with people who are industrious and energetic (Āraddha vīriya puggala sevanatā).

Energy will develop in him who associates himself with industrious and energetic people whole-heartedly devoted to their task only.

Men of dedication (Pahitatta) are always determined not to leave off their efforts in carrying out a set task until success is achieved (or if not successful until death). Those lacking dedication hesitate even before beginning a work with the thought. "Shall I succeed or not?" While carrying out the work, if the expected goal is not easily achieved, he flinches with the thought, "Even though I carry on with the work, I shall not succeed" and thus they stop putting effort.

(11) Inclination towards development of Energy in all four postures (Tad adhimuttatā).

Energy will develop in him who is intent on and inclined to cultivating it in all four postures of lying down, sitting, standing and walking.

These are the eleven factors which develop Energy.

[ 244 ] The main foundation of Energy.

The main foundation of Energy is the emotion of dread (saṃvega). It is of three kinds:

(1) Cittutrāsa Saṃvega,
(2) Ottappa Saṃvega, and
(3) Ñāṇa Saṃvega.

(1) Disturbance of mind through dread of dangers of elephants, tigers, weapons such as swords, spears etc., is known as "Cittutrāsa Saṃvega." In terms of Abhidhammā, it is the mental concomitant of aversion (dosa). Through weak aversion arises fear; through strong aversion arises aggressiveness.

(2) Dread to do evil is Ottappa Saṃvega. It is a wholesome type of mental concomitant (Sobhana Cetasika).

(3) Dread that arises as religious emotion through reflecting on cause and effect is known as Ñāṇa Saṃvega. It is the kind of fear of saṃsāra felt by the virtuous. In the Texts Ñāṇa Saṃvega is described also as the knowledge that is accompanied by moral dread of evil.

(Should one include Dhamma Saṃvega which is the wisdom of Arahants that arises accompanied by moral dread on seeing the dangers of conditioned phenomena, there will be four kinds of Saṃvega).

Of these types of Saṃvega, only Ñāṇa Saṃvega should be considered as the main spring of Energy. When one sees the dangers of saṃsāra through wisdom and is stirred by moral dread, one would certainly work arduously for liberation from these dangers. Without such wisdom, one will not work for it at all.

Even in everyday mundane life, a student who is struck with fear of poverty, that is, one who has Ñāṇa Saṃvega will work hard reflecting thus, "Without education, I will be faced with poverty when I grow up"; another one who is not moved by such anxiety, that is, one who has no [ 245 ] Ñāṇa Saṃvega, will put forth no effort whatever to acquire knowledge.

Similarly, motivated by fear of poverty, workers assiduously devote themselves to work which provides them with necessities of life; whereas those who do not consider for their future will remain indolent and carefree. It should be surmised from what has been said that only Ñāṇa Saṃvega can cause the development of Energy.

But this applies only to the development of Energy which serves as a Perfection. As already mentioned, there are two kinds of Energy, namely, Energy which is developed for a wholesome act and that developed for an unwholesome act. The energy necessary for an unwholesome act is also caused by stirring of emotion (saṃvega); but it is Cittutrāsa Saṃvega and not Ñāṇa Saṃvega that serves as its foundation.

An indigent person in need of money will make effort to steal; he cannot take up a proper mental attitude (Yoniso manasikāra). This is an example of how wrong effort arises through unwholesome Cittutrāsa Saṃvega. A person who does not possess a proper mental attitude will have recourse to wrong efforts to prevent possible dangers falling upon him. But a person with right frame of mind will not exert to do wrong actions; he always strives for good ones.

Thus whereas the main foundation of Energy is the emotion of dread (Saṃvega), it is the mental attitude which determines the kind of energy whether wholesome or unwholesome to develop.

As a Perfection, unwholesome energy is not to be considered; it is only blameless, wholesome energy that is reckoned as a Perfection.

When we consider the four Right Exertions, it would seem that only energy that causes wholesome acts serves as a Perfection. But, although an effort may not result in wholesome acts, if it is neither a wrong effort nor the kind [ 246 ] that would produce unwholesome acts, it should be counted as a Perfection of Energy.

As an example of super effort for Perfection the Commentary cites the story of Mahājanaka. The Bodhisatta as prince Janaka made effort of swimming for seven days in the ocean (when the ship he was travelling in sank). His strenuous endeavour was not motivated by a desire to perform wholesome acts or to practise charity, observe morality or cultivate meditation. It does not result in arising of unwholesome states such as greed, hatred, bewilderment either and may thus be regarded as blameless. Prince Janaka's supreme exertion, being blameless and being free from unwholesomeness counts as fulfilment of Perfection of Energy.

When the ship was about to be wrecked, seven hundred people on board wept and lamented in desperation without making any attempt to survive the disaster. Prince Janaka, unlike his follow travellers thought to himself: "To weep and lament in fear when faced with danger is not the way of the wise; a wise man endeavours to save himself from an impending danger. A man with wisdom as I am, I must put forth effort to swim my way through to safety." With this resolve and without any trepidation, he courageously swam across the ocean. Being urged by such a noble thought, his performance was laudable and the effort he put forth for this act was also extremely praiseworthy.

Bodhisattas in every existence undertake what they have to do bravely and without flinching; not to say of rebirths in the human world, even when he was born as a bull, the Bodhisatta performed arduous tasks (Pāṭha Jātaka, Ekaka Nipāta, 3-Kuru Vagga). Thus as a young bull named Kaṇha, the Bodhisatta, out of gratitude to the old woman who had tended him, pulled five hundred carts loaded with merchandise across a big swamp.

Even as an animal, the development of Energy as a Perfection by the Bodhisatta was not slackened; when reborn as a human the tendency to put forth effort persisted in him. Extreme hardships he went through as King [ 247 ] Kusa in his endeavours to win back the favours of Princess Pabhāvatī (who ran away from him an account of his ugly appearance) are examples of determined effort, unyielding in face of difficulties of the Bodhisatta. The latent tendency to develop such energy remained with a Bodhisatta throughout all his various existences.

The life of Mahosadha.

The Texts give the story of Mahosadha to show the Bodhisatta's fulfilment of the Perfection of Wisdom. But in that very life, the Bodhisatta also developed the Perfection of Energy. On the whole, Mahosadha made use of Wisdom as a guide in attending to multifarious duties of his; but once a careful decision had been made it was put to execution by making continual effort. Such endeavours of Mahosadha, even though they were not intended to develop meritorious acts of generosity, morality or meditation, should be considered as Perfection of Energy since they were made for the welfare of others.

Mahosadha's Endeavours.

It may be asked whether some of Mahosadha's endeavours did not cause suffering to others. For example, when King Cūḷanī-Brahmadatta laid siege to Mithilā with 18 divisions of his indestructible (akkhobhaṇī) army, Mahosadha devising a stratagem brought about a complete rout of the great army, causing much suffering to King Cūḷanī-Brahmadatta and his hordes. Should we not blame Mahosadha then for his attempts to make his opponents suffer?

In answer to that: take the simile of scaring a snake which is about to catch a frog. Some people take the view that such an attempt is blameworthy because by so doing the frog will no doubt get out of harm's way but the snake will go hungry. The Buddha teaches that volition is the deciding factor in such a situation. If one frightens away the snake in order to make it suffer from hunger. it is blameworthy; on the other hand, if one acts only to get the frog out of danger without giving any thought to the snake's hunger, it is quite blameless.

[ 248 ] Again, in the Questions of King Milinda (Milindapañha, 4-Meṇḍaka Vagga, 5-Devadattapabbajja pañha) the king asks the Venerable Nāgasena, "Venerable Sir, is it not a fact that the Buddha knew that Devadatta would create a schism if he was permitted to become a bhikkhu; knowing thus why did the Buddha admit him into the order; if he did not receive admission, he would not be able to cause the schism."

The Venerable Nāgasena replies, "O King, The Buddha indeed foresaw that Devadatta would create a schism among bhikkhus but the Buddha also knew that if Devadatta did not gain admission into the Order, he would commit unwholesome acts such as holding "wrong view with fixed destiny" (niyata micchādiṭṭhi); for which he would suffer worse fate than he would for causing schism. Creating the schism would no doubt lead him to miserable realms (apāya), but there is a time limit for suffering in these realms. Staying outside the Order, however, through his unwholesome deeds such as holding 'wrong views with fixed destiny' he would be doomed to unlimited misery in the realms of intense suffering (Niraya). Foreseeing this possible limit to his suffering, the Buddha out of compassion admitted him into the Order thus mitigating his agony to a certain extent."

In the same way, by putting to rout the great army of King Cūḷanī-Brahmadatta without causing suffering to his country, Mahosadha was saving his own country of Mithilā from complete destruction. He acted thus to serve the best interest of both and was free of any blame.

The qualities of Energy.

(1) When Energy takes a predominant place in performing multifarious functions, it acquires the name of viriyādhipati, one of the four Predominance-Conditions (Adhipati).
(2) It forms a constituent part of the twenty-two controlling Faculties (Indriya) and is known as Viriyindriya. But only the energy that is associated with mundane moral [ 249 ] consciousness is reckoned as the Perfection of Energy. In the five Controlling Faculties (Indriya) of the Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma also, the Viriyindriya, just as in the case of Paññindriya, is counted. as a Perfection only when it is included in the mundane purifications (of morality and mind).
Likewise concerning the four kinds of Right Exertion (Sammappadhāna) it is only the energy included in the mundane purification that is considered as a Perfection.
(3) The factor of Energy included in the Five Powers (Bala) is known as Power of Energy (Viriya Bala); in the Four Means of Accomplishment (Iddhipāda) as Accomplishment by Energy (Viriyiddhipāda); in the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Bojjhaṅga) as Energy Factor of Enlightenment (Viriyasambojjhaṅga) and in the Eight Constituents of the Noble Path (Ariya Maggaṅga) as Right Effort (Sammā Vāyāma). These various factors of Energy under different names are reckoned as Perfection of Energy only in association with mundane moral consciousness which arises while undertaking mundane purification.

Contemplating on these special qualties of Energy, may you fulfil the Perfection of Energy to its highest possible stage.

Here ends the Chapter on the Perfection of Energy.

(f) The Perfection of Forbearance (Khanti Pāramī).

The Text exhorts 'to bear praise and disdain with patience' (Sammānāvamānakkhamo). One should neither be elated when meeting with pleasant objects nor upset when encountering unpleasant objects. It is no tolerance of pleasantness if we develop greed under fortunate circumstances or of unpleasantness if we develop hate under unfortunate circumstances. The essential meaning here is: we are truly patient only when favourable situations are faced without greed; and unfavourable ones without hate.

[ 250 ] However with regard to the Perfection of Forbearance, the Commentaries generally use in illustrative stories the term Perfection of Forbearance (Khanti Pāramī) only for tolerance to acts of physical or verbal aggression by others without giving way to anger. The 'Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary expounds in the Chapter on Miscellany: "Karuṇūpāyakosallapariggahitaṃ sattasaṅkhārāparādhasahanaṃ adosappadhāno tadākārappavattacittuppādo khanti-pāramitā" The group of consciousness and its concomitants associated with tolerance of wrongs done by others predominated by the mental factor of non-aversion (adosa cetasika) and grasped by compassion and skill in means is called Perfection of Forbearance; that is, the group of consciousness and its concomitants formed in such a mode of tolerance to faults of beings is called Perfection of Forbearance.

The Mūla Ṭikā in commenting on the five restraints (morality, mindfulness, wisdom, forbearance, energy) briefly explained in the Aṭṭhasālinī, defines the restraint of forbearance as: 'Khantīti adhivāsanā; sā ca tathā pavattā khandhā; paññāti eke, adoso eva vā.' 'Khanti means forbearance; that forbearance is actually the four mental aggregates formed in such a mode of tolerance; some teachers say it is Wisdom (paññā) or only the mental factor of non-aversion.'

Some scholars take the view:

"The exhortation in the Pāḷi Texts, 'to bear praise and disdain with patience' seems to imply that one should tolerate praise as well as disdain. But in actual experience one is liable to be displeased and angry only when one is insulted and despised; no one shows such emotions when treated with honour and veneration. Therefore the term forbearance should be used only when one shows no anger in a situation which would normally provoke anger to many others.

To take the Pāḷi Text exhortation literally is to equate the Perfection of Forbearance with the Perfection of Equanimity, seeing no difference between the two."""

[ 251 ] As the authority quoted by these scholars is the aforesaid Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary and Mūla Ṭikā, their view may not be set aside.

It should be noted, however, that forbearance is considered to be tolerance of others' treatment whereas equanimity is indifference towards beings without hate or love.

The Venerable Ledi Sayadaw in his Maṅgala Sutta Nissaya defines Khanti as "not feeling exalted when encountering pleasantness and remaining patient without giving vent to anger when encountering hardships." This definition is in agreement with the exhortation 'sammānāvamānakkhamo'.

To reconcile the Commentary's exposition and the Text: Bodhisattas are by nature serious-minded; pleasant experiences or happy circumstances do not make them excited with greed; they are accustomed to remain unmoved by them without having to make a special effort to discipline their mind. When faced with an unhappy turn of events, however, they have to make special endeavour to bear them patiently so as to fulfil their Perfection of Forbearance.

Bodhisattas, who are fulfilling the Perfection of Forbearance, have to put up with both pleasant and unpleasant experiences so as not to develop greed and ill-will. Hence the exhortation given in the Text to bear praise without developing greed and to tolerate insults and ill-treatments without generating hate. But it is nothing strange for Bodhisattas who are serious minded to experience pleasantness without being moved by greed. Therefore the Commentary comments only upon tolerance which is to be cultivated as Perfection of Forbearance in unpleasant situations unbearable to ordinary persons. Viewed in this way, there is no disagreement between the exposition in the Commentary and the teaching in the Text.

[ 252 ] The nature of Forbearance.

Forbearance being the group of consciousness and its concomitants led by the mental factor of non-aversion (adosa cetasika) which has the characteristics of lack of ill-will or anger is not a separate ultimate reality like Wisdom or Energy. However, when considered by itself as adosa cetasika, it is of course an ultimate reality like Wisdom or Energy.

Although forbearance (Khantī) is non-aversion (adosa cetasika) every case of non-aversion is not forbearance. The adosa cetasika accompanies every arising of a 'Beautiful' (Sobhaṇa) type of Consciousness but it is called forbearance (Khantī) only if it serves as a deterent to anger when provoked by others. If the 'Beautiful' consciousness arises due to any other cause, the adosa cetasika that accompanies it is not called forbearance.

The Venerable Puṇṇa's Forbearance.

The Venerable Puṇṇa's mental attitude serves as a good example of forbearance one should develop; it is therefore briefly described here. Once during the Buddha's time, the Venerable Puṇṇa approached and informed the Bhagavā that he would like to go to Sunāparanta district and live there. The Buddha said to him, "Puṇṇa, the people in Sunāparanta are rough and brutal. How would you feel, should they abuse and revile you?"

The Thera replied, "Venerable Sir, should the people of Sunāparanta abuse and revile me, I would regard them as good people, control my temper and bear them patiently with the thought: "Those are good people, [ 253 ] extremely good people; they merely abuse and revile me, but not assault me with their fists and elbows."

The Buddha asked him further, "Puṇṇa, suppose the people of Sunāparanta assault you with their fists and elbows, how would you feel? "Venerable Sir, I would regard them as good people, control my temper and bear them patiently with the thought: "Those are good people, extremely good people; they merely assault me with their fists and elbows but not stoned me."

(The Buddha asked him further how he would feel if people stoned him, beat him with a stick, cut him with a sword or even kill him.)

The Thera replied, "Venerable Sir, I would control my temper and bear them patiently with the thought: 'The disciples of the Bhagavā such as Venerable Godhika, Venerable Channa, etc., (being weary of, and ashamed of and being disgusted with the body and with life) had to commit suicide (Satthahāraka Kamma); how fortunate I am. I need not kill myself." The Buddha then approved of his replies and blessed him. (Majjhima Nikāya, Uparipaṇṇāsa, 5-Saḷāyatana Vagga, 3-Puṇṇovāda Sutta)

Again, in the Pāṭha Jātaka, Sattālisa Nipāta, Sarabhaṅga Jātaka, Sakka, the King of Devas, asked the hermit Sarabhaṅga:

O Hermit of Koṇḍañña ancestry, what may one slay without having to repent? What may one abandon to gain praise from the virtuous? Whose abusive, harsh words should one bear with patience? Give me answers to these questions.

The Bodhisatta, Sarabhaṅga the Hermit, replied:

One may slay anger without having to repent; one may abandon ingratitude to gain praise from the virtuous; one should bear with patience abusive, harsh words from everyone, whether superior, equal or inferior; the virtuous call this the highest form of patience.

Again, Sakka asked:

O Hermit, it may be possible to put up with the abusive, harsh words of those who are superior or one's equal but why should one tolerate the rude words coming from one's inferiors?

[ 254 ] The Bodhisatta answered:

One may bear with patience the rudeness of one's superior through fear; or the abusive language from those who are equal to ward off danger of rivalry. (Both cases are not superior types of patience.) But the wise say that to put up with the rude language coming from one's inferiors, with no special reason to do so, is the supreme form of forbearance.

Sakka's forbearance.

Once, in a battle between the Devas of Tāvatiṃsa and the Asuras, the Devas captured Vepacitti, king of the Asuras, and brought him to the presence of Sakka. As he entered or left the Assembly, he reviled Sakka with abusive words but Sakka endured him without showing anger. (Saṃyutta Nikāya, Sagatha Vagga, Sakka Saṃyutta, Vepacitti Sutta.)

Then Mātali (Sakka's charioteer) asked his master why he remained calm, without showing any resentment in the face of such insults. Sakka's reply in verse included the following extract:

Sadatthaparamā atthā,
Khantyā bhiyyo na vijjati. Yo have balavā santo,
Dubbalassa titikkhati,
Tam āhu paramaṃ khantiṃ.

Of all kinds of interest, self-interest is supreme; and amongst acts that promote self-interest, forbearance is the best. He who being strong himself endures the weak; this the virtuous call the supreme forbearance.

Explanation on quotations from the Texts.

Although the above quotations from the Sakka Saṃyutta and Sarabhaṅga Jātaka refer particularly to [ 255 ] forbearance to verbal insults, it should be understood that enduring physical assaults also is meant. The Texts mention verbal insults because these are more commonly met with than physical attacks.

This is borne out by the example of the aforesaid story of Venerable Puṇṇa which included physical ill-treatments in ascending order of grievousness.

In the Khantivādī Jātaka also is found the story of hermit Khantivādī who set an example of supreme forbearance when King Kalābu tortured him not only verbally but also physically causing him death.

Freedom from anger (akkodha) and forbearance (khanti).

As has been stated above, forbearance is controlling oneself not to resent when others attacked one verbally or physically. But there is another form of anger which is not connected with verbal or physical wrongs done by others. Suppose a man employs someone to do a certain job and the workman performs it to the best of his ability. But the employer is not satisfied with his work and may burst out with anger. If one controls one's temper in such a situation it is not forbearance (Khantī), it is just giving no vent to anger (akkodha).

Akkodha and Khanti as Kingly Duties.

In the Mahā Haṃsa Jātaka of the Asīti Nipāta, Pāṭha Jātaka, the Buddha teaches 'Ten Duties of the King' (Dasa Rāja-Dhamma) which include both Akkodha and Khanti.

In carrying out various orders of a monarch, his executives may have performed their tasks well with the best of intention, but not to his satisfaction. Akkodha as one of the Ten Duties of the King forbids him from giving way to royal anger in such a situation. In contrast, khanti which is bearing verbal or physical insults without losing temper is laid down separately as another Duty of the King.

[ 256 ] Nine Causes of Anger.

There are nine causes of anger which arises in relation to oneself, to friends, loved ones or to one's enemies. It may also arise regarding actions in the past, present or future, Thus there are nine causes of anger arising with regard to individuals and with regard to time:

(1) One is angry in relation to oneself, thinking. "he has caused damage to my interest";
(2) One is angry in relation to oneself, thinking. "he is causing damage to my interest";
(3) One is angry in relation to oneself, thinking, "he will cause damage to my interest";
(4) One is angry in relation to one's friends thinking, "he has caused damage to the interest of my friend";
(5) One is angry in relation to one's friends thinking, "he is causing damage to the interest of my friend";
(6) One is angry in relation to one's friends thinking. "he will cause damage to the interest of my friend";
(7) One is angry in relation to one's enemies, thinking, "he has promoted the interest of my enemies";
(8) One is angry in relation to one's enemies, thinking, "he is promoting the interest of my enemies";
(9) One is angry in relation to one's enemies, thinking, "he will promote the interest of my enemies".

(Aṅguttara Pāḷi, Navaka Nipāta, 1-Paṇṇāsaka. 3-Vagga. 9-Sutta).

Irrational anger (aṇṭhāna kopa).

In addition to the above nine causes of anger, one can also become angry if it is raining too heavily or too windy or too hot etc., Losing temper over matters about which one should not get angry is called irrational anger (Aṭṭhāna kopa). It is the mental factor of ill-will (dosa [ 257 ] cetasika) which arises mostly in those having no reasoning ability. To restrain such irrational anger (aṭṭhāna kopa) is to remain without anger (akkodha).

Eight kinds of power (bala).

In a list of eight kinds of power of the noble and virtuous is included Forbearance. (Aṅguttara Pāḷi, Aṭṭhaka Nipāta, 1-Paṇṇāsaka, 3-Gahapati Vagga, 7-Sutta). The eight kinds of power are:

(1) crying is the power of children,
(2) anger is the power of women,
(3) weapon is the power of robbers,
(4) sovereignty over wide territories is the power of kings,
(5) finding fault with others is the power of fools,
(6) careful scrutinization is the power of the wise,
(7) repeated consideration is the power of the learned,
(8) tolerance to wrongs done by others is the power of Samaṇas and brāhmaṇas.

Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas.

With reference to the terms Samaṇas and Brahmaṇas in no (8)of the above list, it may be asked whether Samaṇas are of equal status.

Outside of the Teaching, Samaṇa means a recluse. Within the Teaching, it is understood as a bhikkhu, a member of the Order, a son of the Buddha. The term Samaṇa is thus well known and needs no further explanation.

What requires elaboration is the word Brāhmaṇa which is rendered in Myanmar. The Aggañña Sutta of the Pāthika Vagga, Digha Nikāya, gives an account of how this appellation 'Brahmaṇa' comes to be used first.

[ 258 ] At the beginning of the world, (after humans had lived on earth for aeons)evil ways had appeared amongst them and they elected a certain individual to rule over them as 'the Great Elect', King Mahā Sammata. At that time some people saying, "The world is being overwhelmed by forces of evil; we do not wish to live in association with people who are so corrupted as to be governed by a king. We will repair to the forest and drive away, wash away these evil ways," went to the forest and stayed there meditating and being absorbed in Jhāna. Because they lived in this manner they were called Brāhmaṇas.

Brāhmana is a Pāḷi word which means one who has done away with evil. Brāhmaṇas did not cook their own food; they lived on fruits which had fallen from trees or on alms-food collected from towns and villages. They were called Brāhmaṇas because they led a pure, holy life in keeping with the literal meaning of the Pāḷi word Brāhmaṇa. They were thus Guṇa Brāhmaṇas, that is, Brāhmaṇas by virtue of their holy practice.

After lapse of many aeons, some of these Guṇa Brāhmaṇas failed to keep to the practice of meditation and absorption in Jhāna. They settled down on the outskirts of towns and villages; they composed and taught Vedas to those eager to learn them. They no longer practised meditation to attain Jhāna absorption and to cast off evil. But they still retained the name of Brāhmaṇa; but they were not Guṇa Brāhmaṇas since they did not possess any more, the attribute of holy practice. They could only claim to be Jāti brāhmans i.e., 'brāhmaṇas by birth being descended from the Guṇa Brāhmaṇas. As they could not practice meditation to attain Jhāna they are regarded to be of inferior class. But with lapse of time, writing Vedic books and teaching they came to be considered as quite respectable and noble. Although these brāhmaṇas by birth would not actually cast off and wash away mental defilements by cultivation of Jhāna, they immersed themselves in the waters of rivers and streams to deceive people, calling their deceptive performance as acts of ablution to wash away impurities.

[ 259 ] A reference to this practice of washing out one's sins by brāhmanas is found in the Bhūridatta Jātaka. Bhūridatta, King of Nāgas, used to visit the human world to observe precepts. On one such visit, he failed to return to the Nāga land at the expected time. His two brothers went in search of him.

(They were able to retrieve him in time from the captivity of a snake charmer who ill-treated him. He was betrayed by a brahmin named Nesāda who saw him observing precepts on top of an ant-hill.)²⁰

His younger brother Subhoga Nāga, while following the course of the river Yamunā in search of him, came across the brahmin Nesāda who was responsible for his capture by the snake charmer. The brahmin was found immersed in the Yamunā river in order to wash out the impurities of his betrayal.

The Buddha had in mind only Guṇa Brāhmaṇa when he said that tolerance is the power of Samaṇas or Brāhmaṇas. The ascetics of Aggañña Sutta, who, wearing white clothes practised to rid themselves of difilements were ordinary brāhmaṇas or brāhmaṇas by birth. But when the Buddha made his appearance and started teaching, he described attributes only by virtue of which one may be called a brahmaṇa. In the Dhammapada the Buddha devoted an entire Vagga-Brāhmaṇa Vagga of 42 verses to explain fully the noble qualities. possession of which would entitle one to be called a brāhmaṇa. Such Brāhmahṇs are all Guṇa Brāhmaṇa; there is no division of this class. The brāhmanas by birth, however, are split into many divisions.

(The last four Paragraphs dealing with the etymology of which is Myanmar word for brahmaṇa are left out from our translation.)

Here ends the Chapter on the Perfection of Forbearance.

[ 260 ] (g) The Perfection of Truthfulness

(Sacca-Pāramī).

(The opening paragraphs of this Chapter deals with how the Pāḷi words, Khanti and Sacca are adopted with some change in the Myanmar language and how Truthfulness is likened in the Myanmar literature to the Morning Star which never deviates from its course. We have left them out of our translation.)

What is to be noted, however, is this: as has been mentioned in the Text, Just as the Morning Star always goes straight without deviating from its course, so should one speak straight and truthfully, Such a speech alone means truthfulness. Hence the Commentator Buddhaghosa's explanation of the simile of the Morning Star.

Two kinds of Truth.

Truth (Sacca) is not a separate ultimate principle like wisdom (paññā) or energy (viriya). It is truthfulness without having a trace of falsehood. It involves such mental concomitants as restraint (viratī-cetasika), volition (cetanācetasika), etc., As truthfulness varies under different circumstance truth is basically of two kinds: (1) Conventional Truth (Sammuti-Sacca) and (2) Ultimate Truth (Paramattha-Sacca). (Only these two kinds of Truth are taught by the Buddha; there is no such thing as a third truth; there is no truth other than these two in the entire world.)

Conventional Truth (Sammuti-Sacca).

Of these two kinds, the conventional truth is the truth which agrees with what has been named by people. People generally name things according to their shapes. They call a thing of this shape a 'human', a thing of that shape a 'bull', a thing of another shape a 'horse'. Again, among humans one of this shape is called a 'man' and one of that shape a 'woman'. There are in this way as many names as there are things.

[ 261 ] If you call a thing named man a 'man', it is a conventional truth; it is conventionally correct for you to say so. If you call what has been named man a 'bull' it is not a conventional truth; it is not conventionally correct for you to say so. If you refer to someone, who has been named 'woman', as a 'man', it is not a conventional truth; it is not conventionally correct for you to say so. In this way one should differentiate between the two truths.

Ultimate Truth (Paramattha Sacca).

That which not only has been named by people but which really exists in its ultimate sense is called Ultimate Truth. For example, when it is said, "the thing that knows various sense-objects is mind (citta)", the knowing principle is an Ultimate Truth because it truly exists in its ultimate sense. When it is said, "the thing that changes owing to opposite phenomena such as heat and cold etc., is matter (rūpa)", the changing principle is an Ultimate Truth, because it truly exists in its ultimate sense. In this way, mental concomitants (cetasika) and Nibbāna should also be known as Ultimate Truths, because they also truly exist in their ultimate sense.

Perception (Saññā) and Wisdom (Paññā).

Of the two kinds of truth, the conventional truth is associated with perception; in other words, the conventional truth depends on perception. Recognition of things according to their respective shapes as one has been saying since one's childhood 'such a shape is a man', 'such a shape is a woman', 'such a shape is a bull', 'such a shape is a horse' and so on, is perception. A person seeing through perception will say: "There exists a human body'. 'there exists a man', 'there exists a woman', etc.

The Ultimate Truth is the object of wisdom. In other words, it manifests itself through wisdom. The greater the wisdom, the more discernable the Ultimate Truth. Wisdom makes an analysis of everything and sees its true nature. When it is said "the thing that knows various sense objects is mind", wisdom investigates whether a knowing [ 262 ] principle exists or not and decides that it does. If there were no such thing as knowing, wisdom ponders, there would never be beings; all would have been sheer matter such as stones, rocks and the like. Material things are far from knowing. But all beings do cognize various sense-objects. When wisdom thus ponders there manifests itself the principle (citta) which knows sense-objects.

Therefore that mind exists ultimate sense is clear to those who think through wisdom; the more they think, the clearer they comprehend. But to those who see things through perception it will not be clear: it will remain indiscernable. Because, as has been said before, perception is a notion of shapes, when you say there is mind, the perceptionist may ask, "Is the mind round, flat, or square? Is it a powder, a liquid, or a gas?" But you cannot answer that it is round, flat, or square; nor can you say that it is a powder, a liquid, or a gas. If you cannot say anything, he may argue that there is no such thing as mind; because if there were such a thing, it must be round, flat or square; it must be a powder, a liquid or a gas. To the perceptionist who is preoccupied with the idea of concrete forms, mind does not exist simply because it does not assume any concrete form.

Just as the perceptionist cannot see the ultimate truth, so cannot the intellectual see the conventional truth. When the intellectual takes a look at what has been named 'man' by the perceptionist, he does so with an analytical mind and makes thirty-two portions of his person such as hair on the head, hair on the body, fingernails, toenails, etc., "Is hair on the head called man?" "Is hair on the body called man?" The answers to these questions cannot be in the affirmative. In the same way, when a similar question on each of the remaining portions of the human body is asked, the answer will be no every time. If none of these portions can be called 'man', the intellectual will say, "Well, there really does not exist such a thing called man."

Conventional truth appears only when it is seen through perception; but when seen through wisdom, it disappears; [ 263 ] so also, the Ultimate Truth appears when it is seen through wisdom; when seen through perception, it disappears.

In this connection, what is particularly noteworthy is the fact that Nibbāna is an Ultimate Truth. That Ultimate Truth is peace through cessation of all kinds of sorrow and suffering. That peace can be discerned only when it is examined by means of sharp insight but not by means of perception.

The perceptionist's view.

Nowadays some people might like to ask: "Are there in Nibbāna palatial buildings?; How do those who have passed into Nibbāna enjoy there" and so on. They ask such questions because of their perception of Nibbāna which as Ultimate Truth lies in the sphere of wisdom.

To be sure, there are no palatial buildings in Nibbāna; nor are there any individuals that pass into Nibbāna. (Those who have realized peace of Nibbāna with their attainment of Arahantship are no longer subject to rebirth, but their minds and bodies cease to exist when complete demise takes place in their final existence like a great flame of fire become extinct. Such a cessation is called passing into Parinibbāna. No living entity exists in Nibbāna.)

If that were the case, such thing as Nibbāna would not exist, the perceptionist would say. "It is therefore useless and unnecessary." In order to encourage him, others would assert: "Nibbāna is a place where beings are immortal assuming special mental and physical forms and enjoying incomparable luxury in palaces and mansions." Then only is the perceptionist satisfied immensely because the assertion agrees with what he has preconceived.

If one looks through perception at something and sees the appearance of its concrete form, that is not absolute (paramattha) but merely a conventional designation (paññatti). So also, if one looks through wisdom at something and sees the disappearance of its form, that is not absolute either, but merely a conventional designation [ 264 ] too. Only when one looks through wisdom and sees its true nature, then this is absolute. The more one looks thus, the more one sees such reality. Therefore Nibbāna which is just Peace, highly unique Absoluteness, should not be sought through perception which tends to grasp form and substance. Instead, it should be examined through wisdom which tends to remove form and substance and delve into their true nature so that Peace, Nibbāna, manifests itself.

Conventional truth and ultimate truth are both acceptable each in its own context as has been shown above. Suppose a person takes an oath saying, "I declare that there really exist man and woman. If what I have declared is not correct let misfortune befall me", and suppose another person takes an oath saying "I declare that there really do not exist man and woman. If what I have declared is not correct let misfortune befall me", never will misfortune befall either of them. The reason is: though the two declarations are against each other, both are correct from their respective points of view. The former, correct from the point of view of conventional usage, is conventional truth; the latter, correct from the point of view of ultimate sense, is ultimate truth.

Although Buddhas intend to teach only the nature of absolute reality, they do not exclude the conventional terms from their teaching. Instead they mention them side by side with those of ultimate truth. For instance, even in the First Sermon, though the emphasis is on the two extremes and the Middle Path, it is taught that "The two extremes should not be taken up by a recluse," in which "recluse" is a mere designation.

Importance of Conventional Designation>.

When the Buddha teaches ultimate truth he uses conventional designation wherever necessary. He does so not just to make a contrast. For ordinary persons the conventional truth is as important as the ultimate truth. Had the Buddha taught things only in ultimate terms, those with [ 265 ] proper mental attitude will understand that "whatever exists in the world is impermanent, unsatisfactory and unsubstantial," and they will make efforts to cultivate Vipassanā Meditation, which will directly lead them to Nibbāna.

On the other hand, those with improper mental attitude will hold thus: "It is said that there are only aggregates of mind and matter which are subject to impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and unsubstantiality in this world. There is no self, nor are there other persons. Then there cannot be such things as 'my wealth, my son, my wife'; nor can there be such things as 'his wealth, his son, his wife'. 'One can make use of anything as one desires. Because there is no such thing as 'he', there can be no such thing as 'killing him', no such thing as 'stealing his property', no such thing as 'doing wrong with his wife'. Thus will they commit evil according to their wild desires. So upon their death, they will be reborn in woeful states." To prevent this the Suttanta Desanā, Discourses, are delivered embodying conventional terms. The Suttanta teachings thus form effective, preventive measures for beings from falling into the four woeful states.

Besides, the Suttanta teachings lead beings to such happy states as human world, celestial world and Brahma world, because the virtues, namely, generosity, morality and tranquillity meditation, which are conducive to rebirth in those states, are most numerously taught in the Suttantas. (For example, to accomplish a meritorious act of generosity, there must be the donor, his volition, the recipient and the object to offer. Of these factors. volition alone is an ultimate reality, but the rest are just designations, exclusion of which makes generosity impossible. The same is true of morality and tranquillity meditation.) Therefore it should be noted without any doubt that conventional truth leads to happy abodes as has been stated. Exclusion of conventional truth, to say the least, will deter fulfilment of Perfections which are required for Buddhahood.

Although it is true that the Buddha's teachings of Suttantas alone would make beings avoid wrongdoings. Since the Buddha himself has said that there exist 'I', 'he'. 'mine', 'his', 'my wife and children' and 'his wife and children', etc., there is danger of beings becoming strongly attached to the wrong notion that there really exist such things and becoming gradually removed from the Path. Fruition and Nibbāna. In order to help them reach the Path, Fruition and Nibbāna, the Buddha had to teach ultimate truth as embodied in the Abhidhammā.

[ 266 ] Reasons for teaching of two kinds of truth.

The Suttanta's teaching of the existence of individuals and things belonging to them is made in agreement with designations universally used. But by means of Abhidhamma, the Buddha had to remove their wrong notions saying that there is no such thing as I, he, man, woman etc., therefore because of their conventional terms it should not be grasped that they really exist; all is but impermanent, unsatisfactory and unsubstantial.

In this way the Buddha explained that there exist I, he, man, woman etc., only as mere designations (or as conventional truth), and that those things do not exist in their ultimate sense. Hence the need for him to teach both kinds of truth.

Natural Truth (Sabhāva Sacca) and
Noble Truth
(Ariya Sacca).

Ultimate Truth is of two kinds: (a) Natural and (b) Noble. All the four ultimate realities, namely, mind, mental concomitants, matter and Nibbāna, constitute Natural Truth because they are real in their absolute sense.

In the field of mundane affairs, there are both physical happiness (sukha) and mental happiness (somanassa) which constitute Natural Truth. If one is in contact with a pleasant object, because of that touch, there arises happiness in one's person. None can deny saying, "No, it is not true." or "No, it is not good to be in contact with a pleasant object." Nobody can say so because of the fact that one is really happy to be in contact with a desirable body as a sense-object (iṭṭhaphoṭṭhabbārammaṇa).

[ 267 ] Similarly, if one's mind is in contact with a pleasant mind-object one enjoys mental happiness. Such a feeling is called somanassa-vedanā. This is irrefutable because arising of mental happiness is a reality. Thus it should be held that both sukha and somanassa exist in mundane affairs.

Noble Truths

(Ariya Sacca) The Noble Truth of Suffering

(Dukkha Ariya Sacca).

In terms of Noble Truth, one does not see either sukha or somanassa in mundane affairs. If one clings to the view that there exist both sukha and somanassa as Natural Truth, one cannot be detached from worldly outlock; one cannot then attain the State of a Noble One (Ariya). Therefore one who aspires to become an Ariya should make efforts to see that mental states called sukha and somanassa in terms of natural truth are all suffering. These feelings called sukka and somanassa are things which cannot remain without change for ever; indeed they are subject to change every second.

Worldlings crave the pleasures of human and divine abodes, wrongly believing them to be a source of happiness and delight. They do so because they do not know such pleasures are transitory and subject to constant change. They are ignorant of the true nature of these pleasures because they have little intelligence but great craving. Such ignorant people will look upon them as enjoyable and delightful before process of decay and deterioriation sets in. But it is in their nature to change and when that happens these people become sad much more than they had been happy.

For example, a poor man will become very happy the moment he hears that he has won a lottery prize. Then he starts daydreaming how to spend and enjoy his wealth to make up for his former poverty. While he is building castles in the air, he lost all his money through some misfortune. It may be imagined how much he will be [ 268 ] unhappy then. His sorrow at the loss of his wealth will be far greater than his happiness on becoming suddenly rich.

In the field of worldly affairs everything is associated with both enjoyment and sorrow. The five sense-pleasures are enjoyable to worldlings. But the Buddha says that they are more of suffering than enjoyment. Unlike worldlings, however, the Buddha's Disciples do not find them enjoyable, much less the Buddha. Yet the Buddha does not say that they are totally devoid of pleasantness; he does say that there is little pleasantness but much sorrow in them.

In any situation the wise and virtuous always consider first whether there is fault or no fault, but never whether there is pleasantness or unpleasantness. If there is fault they take no interest in it even if there is pleasantness. They decide it is undesirable to them. If there is no fault they take it to be desirable even if pleasantness is absent.

Supposing someone is told that he could rule a country as a sovereign monarch just for one day; but that the next day he would be executed, then there will be none who dares or desires to rule. From the point of view of a worldling, a Universal Monarch's life for one day which has never been enjoyed before may be entirely attractive. But as there is the impending death on the following day which is a great disadvantage, there can be nobody who will enjoy one day's life of such a Universal Monarch.

In the same way, seeing that everything is perishable, the Noble Ones cannot hold temporary pleasure, which occurs just before it vanishes, as enjoyment. One can become a Noble Person only through contemplation that "there is no such thing as happiness in this world; everything is impermanent; as there is no permanence, there is no happiness; there is but sorrow."

Only by developing Insight through contemplation that everything in the world is of the nature of suffering, it is [ 269 ] possible to become an Ariya. The aggregates of phenomena which are the object of such meditation is called the Noble Truth. In other words, since the Noble Ones meditate on this aggregate of mundane phenomena as they really are, it is called the Noble Truth.

The Insight that, in the cycle of existence which are called the three worlds, there is no enjoyment at all, but only suffering according to the right view held by those who are working for attaining the Noble State and by those who have already attained the same is a truth; it is therefore called the Noble Truth of Suffering.

In short, the five aggregates of clinging (pañca-upādānakkhandha), also named the phenomena of the three mundane planes of existence, are all suffering and that they are nothing but suffering. The pañca-upādānakkhandha are the five aggregates of clinging: the aggregate of matter (rūpa), the aggregate of feelings (vedanā), the aggregate of preceptions (saññā), the aggregate of mental formations (saṅkhāra) and the aggregate of consciousness (viññāṇa), which form objects of attachments as 'I' 'mine' 'myself'. These five aggregates are called the Noble Truth of Suffering.

The Noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Dukkha Samudaya Ariya Sacca)

The pañca-upādānakkhandha which form the Noble Truth of Suffering do not arise by themselves. They have their respective reasons for their arising, the most fundamental and important being craving for sense-objects.

In the world every being is subject to suffering because he or she is to toil daily for essentials of living. And all this is motivated by craving. The more one craves for good living the greater one's suffering is. If one would be satisfied with simple life, living very simply on bare necessities, one's misery would be alleviated to a corresponding extent. It is clear therefore that suffering wrongly believed to be good living is caused by craving.

[ 270 ] Beings do all kinds of acts for wanting better things not only for the present life but also for coming existences. When a new birth appears as a result of those acts, the real cause for this new birth is found to be craving that motivates those acts.

Craving is called the Noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering because it is truly the craving that is the origin of suffering, upādānakkhandha, in the new birth. In other words, craving is the true cause of the aggregates which form suffering. This Noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Dukkha Samudaya Sacca) is also referred to, in short, as Samudaya Sacca.

The Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering.

(Dukkha Nirodha Ariya Sacca)

Craving called the Truth of the cause of Suffering, like the gum of myaukhnai tree, clings to various mundane sense-objects, but, like flies which cannot approach burning iron, it cannot form an attachment to Nibbāna.

The reason for this is that the Ultimate Reality, Nibbāna. the Unconditioned Element, is unattractive from the point of view of craving. To explain, craving rises from feeling as the Buddha has stated "vedanā paccayā tanhā" in the doctrine of the Dependent Origination (Paticca-Samuppāda), and accordingly craving owes its existence to feeling. But the Unconditioned Nibbāna has nothing to do with feeling (it is not the kind of happiness that is to be felt); it is but peaceful happiness (santi-sukha).

Then the question arises: Totally devoid of sensation can Nibbāna be likeable and desirable?

If somebody asked like this, he does so because he thinks feeling is real happiness or he does not consider that peaceful happiness is real happiness.

The answer is: there are two kinds of happiness, happiness derived from feeling (vedayita-sukha) and happiness derived from peace (santi-sukha). Here is a simile: suppose there is a rich man who is fond of [ 271 ] food. He expends much to nourish himself with sumptuous delicacies. But a vijjādhara (one who is sustained by magical power) may find rich man's food disgusting, let alone finding it appetitive, as he is endowed with the power of living without eating. When asked, "Of these two, who is happier as far as food is concerned", man of craving will say the rich man is happier because he enjoys highly sumptuous food whenever he desires while the latter enjoys nothing. They will say so because, being overwhelmed by craving, they believe that feeling which stimulates craving is something to be esteemed.

Men of intelligence, on the other hand, will say that the vijjādhara is happier; the rich man, being a man of dainty palate, must go in quest of elaborate foodstuff; having acquired them he is flooded with troubles of making necessary preparations (paṭisaṅkharaṇa-dukkha) and longing for novelty (āsā-dukkha). To enjoy happiness derived from feeling (vedayita-sukha) is to be burdened with these twin dukkha; there is no escape from them. The vijjādhara has no such dukkha; he lives happily having nothing to do with food. There is no trace of worries in his happiness, which is absolute. Thus they will say he is happier.

Men of craving say that the rich man is happier because they do not see any of his troubles; what they do see is his enjoyment of food. They have no good impression of the peaceful life of the vijjadhara who need not eat at all; instead they envy the rich man's way of living and want to become rich themselves. In the same way craving has no high opinion of, no desire or yearning for, santi-sukha (the Unconditioned Nibbāna) which is devoid of feeling and which indeed is peace.

In this connection, the Third Sutta, 4. Mahāvagga, Navaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya says:

Once the Venerable Sāriputta, while staying in the midst of bhikkhus, uttered: Friends, Nibbāna is indeed happiness; Nibbāna is indeed happiness." Then the Venerable Udāyī asked: "How can Nibbāna be happiness, Friend Sāriputta, if there is no feeling?" [ 272 ] The Venerable Sāriputta replied: "Friend Udāyī, Nibbāna's being devoid of feeling is in itself happiness."

Worldly people who lack intelligence view the five aggregates, the Truth of Suffering, as happiness. Intelligent worldly people and the Noble Ones view the cessation of the five aggregates like the extinction of great fire as happiness. A simile to illustrate the superiority of happiness derived from cessation and extinction for those worldly people of poor intelligence is as follows: a patient who is suffering from a chronic, acute flatulence takes a dose of medicine from a good physician; consequently he gets completely cured of his disease. It may be imagined how happy he would be. At that moment he has no pleasant sensation whatever; what he experiences is simply the extinction of the flatulent trouble. He will certainly be delighted knowing "Oh, gone is my trouble now!" as his suffering has ceased to trouble him. The flatulent trouble is nothing when compared with Saṃsāric suffering. If one takes delight in extinction of that insignificant trouble, why will he not find happiness in extinction of the great Samsaric suffering. He will certainly be overjoyed.

Nibbāna.

What is Nibbāna, the cessation of suffering? When the Unconditioned Element Asaṅkhata-Dhātu, the unique Ultimate Reality, which has the characteristics of peace, is realised with the fourfold knowledge of the Path, all the defilements numbering one thousand and five hundred, are completely eradicated, never will they rise again. In any existence, when the Arahattamagga is attained, the suffering in the form of the five aggregates ceases once and for all immediately after death, just as a heap of fire has been extinguished. There is no more rebirth in any realms of existence. That Unconditioned Element, the unique Ultimate Reality, which has the characteristics of peace and all the unique attributes described above is called Nibbāna.

The worldlings do not know full well the nature of Nibbāna as the Noble Ones do. If they, without knowing [ 273 ] it, say or write to let others understand it as the Noble Ones do, they could go wrong. Let alone speaking of Nibbāna, when they speak even of a mundane object which they know only from books, as though they have seen it with their own eyes, they are likely to make mistakes. The common worldlings not being able to see every aspect of it like the Noble Ones do, should speak of Nibbāna only in the aforesaid manner.

When Nibbāna is considered as to what it is like, those who have not understood what it really is, are likely to regard Nibbāna as a kind of indestructible country or city. When Nibbāna is mentioned as a secure city in a discourse at a water-pouring ceremony, it is just a figurative usage. Nibbāna is not a city, nor is it a country. Yet there are some who believe and say that Nibbāna is a city where those who have passed into it live happily with mind and body free of old age, sickness and death. The truth is that passing of Buddhas, Pacceka-Buddhas and Arahants into Nibbāna means complete cessation of the five aggregates, material and mental, of an Arahant at his death in his last existence; they will no longer appear in any realm of existence. (Nibbāna is the Ultimate Reality which is the object of the Path and Fruition. Parinibbāna is complete cessation of the material and mental aggregates which will never come into being again.) Their passing into Nibbāna is not going into the city of Nibbāna. There is no such thing as the city of Nibbāna.

The Myanmar word (Nibbān) is a Pāḷi derivative. When people perform meritorious deeds, their teachers will admonish them to pray for Nibbān. Though they do so accordingly, they generally do not know well what Nibbān means. So they are not very enthusiastic about it. The teachers therefore should ask them to pray for the extinction of all suffering and sorrow because the words are pure Myanmar and the devotees will understand thoroughly and pray enthusiastically and seriously.

Two kinds of Nibbāna

[ 274 ] Suppose there is a very costly garment. When its owner is still alive you say, "it is an excellent garment with a user." When he dies, you say, "It is an excellent garment with no user." (The same garment is spoken of in accordance with the time in which he lives or in which he no longer lives.) Similarly, the Unconditioned Element, the Ultimate Reality of Nibbāna, which has the characteristic of peace and which is the object the Venerable Ones such as Sāriputta contemplate by means of the Path and Fruition is called Sa-upādisesa Nibbāna (Nibbāna with the five aggregates of upadisesa contemplating it) before his death; after his death, however, since there are no longer the five aggregates that contemplate Nibbāna, it is called Anupādisesa Nibbāna (Nibbāna without the five aggregates of Upādisesa contemplating it.)

The peace of Nibbāna is aspired for only when it is pondered after overcoming craving by wisdom. That the peace of Nibbāna is something which should really be aspired for will not be understood if craving is foremost in one's thinking and not overcome by wisdom.

Three kinds of Nibbāna.

Nibbāna is also of three kinds according to its attributes which are clearly manifest in it: (1) Suññata Nibbāna, (2) Animitta Nibbāna and (3)Appanihita Nibbāna.

(1) The first attribute is that Nibbāna is devoid of all distractions (palibodha); hence Sunnata Nibbāna. (Suññata means 'void'.)
(2) The second attribute is that it is devoid of consciousness (citta) mental concomitants (cetasika) and matter (rūpa) which as conditioned things are the cause of defilements. Conditioned things, whether mental or material, cannot only arise individually and without combining with one another. Material things arise only when at [ 275 ] least eight of them form a combination. (That is why they are called aṭṭhakalāpa, unit of eight.) Mental things also arise only when at least eight elements make a combination. (By this is meant pañca-viññāṇa, the fivefold consciousness.) When such combinations of mental and material components brought together to form an aggregate are wrongly taken to be my self, my body, a thing of substance, they give rise to mental defilements such as craving etc., Conditioned things are thus known as nimitta, ground or cause. In particular mundane consciousness, mental concomitants and matter are called nimitta. In Nibbāna, however, there are no such things of substance as "myself", "my body", which cause the emergence of defilements. Hence the name Animitta Nibbāna.
(3) The third attribute is that Nibbāna is devoid of craving which is taṇhā. As has been said before, Nibbāna has nothing to crave for. Nibbāna is not to be craved. Therefore it is also called Appaṇihita Nibbāna. In this way there are three kinds of Nibbāna according to its attributes.

This Truth of Cessation of Suffering is in short called the Truth of Cessation. This Truth of Cessation is the Unconditioned (Asaṅkhata) Element. (It is not conditioned by any factor.) Therefore this Truth of Cessation, the Unconditioned Element, the Ultimate Reality of Nibbāna, is named Appaccaya-Dhamma, Uncaused Phenomenon, or Asaṅkhata-Dhamma, Unconditioned Phenomenon, in the Dhammasaṅganī.

The Noble Truth of the Path.

Though Nibbāna is causeless, not conditioned by any cause and always exists, it is not possible to realise its peace without a cause. It can be realised only through a cause. That cause is nothing but the Noble Practice. Therefore the Noble Practice that leads to Nibbāna, the Cessation of Suffering, is termed Dukkha Nirodhagāmini Paṭipadā, the Course of Practice that leads to the Cessation of Suffering.

[ 276 ] The Middle Path (Majjhima Paṭipadā).

Living in enjoyment of sensual pleasures in the world fulfilling the demands of craving is not the path for attainment of Nibbāna, the Cessation of Suffering. It is just an ignoble practice called kāmasukhallikānuyoga. Efforts to make oneself suffer by exposure of one's body to fire, to the sun, by keeping one's hand raised continuously, with a view to prevent mental defilements from appearing do not form the way to Nibbāna, the Cessation of Suffering. It is another ignoble practice called attakilamathānuyoga. Avoiding self-indulgence in sensual pleasures on the one hand and self-motification on the other, following only the middle path which is neither too comfortable nor too arduous like the string of a harp which is neither too taut nor too loose is the practice that surely leads to Nibbāna. This practice which is neither easy nor difficult is called Majjhimapaṭipadā, the Middle Course.

This very Middle Course is called the Path (Magga), the Way leading to Nibbāna. Wrong view etc., which are unwholesome are called duggati-magga or micchā-magga as they lead to the four woeful states (apāya). Right view etc., which are mundane and wholesome are called sugatimagga or sammā-magga as they lead to Nibbāna. The Commentary on Sacca Vibhaṅga explains that these factors such as right view etc., which constitute Path Consciousness are called Magga because they are sought by those who aspire for Nibbāna; because these factors lead to Nibbāna; and because they find their way to Nibbāna after eradicating mental defilements.

This Path is not of one factor only; it is of eight factors, as will be shown below; hence it is called Aṭṭhaṅgi-ka Magga, the Path of Eight Constituents, which are:

(1) Sammā-diṭṭhi: Right View (Knowledge of the Truth of Suffering, Knowledge of the Truth of the Cause of Suffering, Knowledge of the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering and Knowledge of the Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering. Thus it is the fourfold Knowledge);

[ 277 ] (2) Sammā-saṅkappa: Right Thought. (Three kinds of thought, namely, thought of liberating oneself from sensuous defilements (kilesa-kāma) and sensuous objects (vatthu-kāma) as has been explained in the section on the Nekkhama Pāramī, Perfection of Renunciation; thought of not destroying others; and thought of not harming others);

(3) Sammāvacā: Right Speech (Restraint of four evil speeches);

(4) Sammā-kammanta: Right Action (Restraint of three evil doings);

(5) Sammā-ājiva: Right Livelihood (Livelihood that is free of seven evils);

(6) Sammā-vāyāma: Right Exertion (Exertion so as not to give rise to unwholesomeness that has not yet occurred, exertion so as to eradicate unwholesomeness that has occurred, exertion so as to give rise to wholesomeness that has not yet occurred and exertion so as to develop wholesomeness that has occurred);

(7) Sammā-sati: Right Mindfulness (Mindfulness so as to be aware of one's body, of one's feelings, of one's consciousness and of mental hindrances etc.);

(8) Sammā-samādhi: Right Concentration (The First Jhāna, the Second Jhāna, the Third Jhāna and the Fourth Jhāna).

These eight constituents do not arise simultaneously in the mundane fields; they arise in combination with one another as far as possible. When they come to the supramundane field, however, all the eight rise simultaneously. Only these eight constituents which arise simultaneously at the moment of attaining the supramundane Path are collectively called the Noble Truth of the Path. Thus by the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering is meant the group of eight factors beginning with Right View that arise as a whole and simultaneously. The Path which is included together with the Fruition and [ 278 ] Nibbāna in the collection of supramundane phenomena (Magga Phala Nibbāna) stands for all these eight consitituents which form the Noble Truth of the Path.

Here ends the Section on the Noble Truths.

Truth of Learning (Pariyatti-sacca) and

Truth of Practice (Paṭipatti-sacca)

The Truths we have so far discussed are those learnt from the Scriptures (Pariyatti-sacca). But what really counts as Perfection of Truthfulness is the Truth of Practice (Paṭipatti-sacca) fulfilled by the Noble Ones such as Bodhisattas and others. The Truth of Practice means Truthful Speech or Telling the Truth (vaci-sacca). Fulfilment of such a practice in one's self is fulfilment of Perfection of Truthfulness. It is the verbal Truth that Bodhisattas and other Noble Persons-fulfil in particular. And this verbal truth is of three kinds:

(1) Saddahāpana-sacca, the verbal truth told so that one may be believed by others;
(2) Icchāpūraṇa-sacca, the verbal truth told so that one's wish may be fulfilled; and
(3) Musāviramaṇa-sacca, the verbal truth told so that telling lies may be avoided.
(4) Saddahāpana-sacca

Of these three truths, the way Bodhisattas fulfil Saddahāpana-sacca is mentioned in the Bhisa Jātaka of the Pakiṇṇaka Nipāta. The full story of the Bhisa Jātaka may be read in the Jātaka Book. The story in brief is as follows.

The story of the Bhisa Jātaka in brief.

Once upon a time, a Brahmin youth, Mahākañcana by name, who was born in the city of Bārāṇasī, went forth in renunciation into a forest together with ten companions [ 279 ] including his young brothers, one young sister, a male servant, a female servant and a friend. They made their lodgings at a suitable place near a lotus pond and lived on gathered fruits.

In the beginning they all went out together to look for fruits; talking to one another they behaved like townsfolk or villagers, not like forest-dwellers. To stop this unpleasant situation, the eldest brother Mahākañcana said: "I alone will go out for fruits. You all stay behind to practise Dhamma in peace." Then the other brothers said: "You are the chief of us all. It is not proper for you to gather fruits. The sister and the female servant should not do so either, for they are women. But the rest, eight of us, will do that by turns." This was agreeable to everyone and the remaining eight male persons gathered fruits on rotation to feed them all.

As time went by, they became so content that they did not care for fruits but took lotus sprouts from the nearby pond and shared among themselves in this manner. The one on duty brought lotus sprouts into the leaf-roofed hut and divided them into eleven portions. The oldest of them took his portion first and, after striking the stone drum, went back to his place to eat it peacefully and carried on with his practice. When the next senior member heard the sound of the stone drum he took his share and struck the drum in turn. In this manner they took their food one after another, went back to their place to eat and continue to practise. Thus they did not see one another unless there was any special reason.

As their practice was so severe causing Sakka's abode tremble, the King of Devas thought of the reason and came to know it. He was then doubtful whether these people were really detached from sensual pleasures or not. In order to investigate the matter, he kept the eldest brother's share of food hidden by his supernormal power for three days continuously.

When the oldest brother came to take his share on the first day, he did not see it and thought that it must [ 280 ] be left out through forgetfulness; he then said nothing and went back to his place to continue his meditation. On the second day also he found his share missing; thinking that his share was purposely left out as a punishment because of some misunderstanding that he was guilty of something, he remained quiet as on the first day. On the third day when he did not find his share he thought that he should apologize if he had been guilty and in the evening he summoned the others by striking the stone drum. He said: "Why did you not keep my share of food? Please speak out if I have some guilt; I will tender my apology to you." Then the first younger brother stood up and after giving his respect to the eldest brother said, "Sir, could I get your permission to speak only for myself?" On getting the permission, he took an oath, saying:

Sir, if I had stolen your share of food, may I come into possession of horses, cattle, silver, gold and a beautiful wife here at this place and stay with my family (enjoying a full mudane life).

(This form of oath suggests that as much as objects of desire give us pleasure when we are in possession of them, we feel grieved and distressed when we are bereft of them. The oath was taken to despise the objects of desire.)

The eldest brother said: "You have taken a very severe oath. I believe you did not take my food. Go and sit in your place." The rest of the group, covering their ears also said: "Brother, please do not say so. Your word is very serious and terrible." (They covered their ears because as meditators they found sense pleasures disgusting to them; sensualtity was so dreadful that they could not bear even to hear something associated with it.) Then the second younger brother said:

Sir, if I had stolen your lotus sprouts, may I become one who wears flowers, puts on sandalwood paste from Kāsi, has many children and who is very much involved in and attached to sensuality.

[ 281 ] (In this way, the remaining eight persons took an oath individually.)

In this Jātaka, the ascetic Mahākañcana, leader of the group, was the Bodhisatta and the rest were destined to become foremost Disciples in their own right. Therefore having attained spiritual maturity, they really abhorred sensuality. Each of them was bold enough to take such a dreadful oath to convince the others. The word "asseveration" is not used directly in this Bhisa Jātaka, but the word "oath" is. Since that oath was based on what was true, it was the same as the verbal truth (vacī-sacca) fulfilled by Bodhisattas. In their individual oaths, the main point was "We do not steal your share of lotus sprouts". Since it was a true statement, it amounts to verbal truth. Such words as "May I also have this or that" (which in effect means "May I encounter this or that") are included as proposed punishment for oneself in the oath just to make the others believe him or her. Accordingly, this truth is called Saddahāpana-sacca. The oath that has been taken from the times of ancient Mahāsammata kings down to the present governments are all Saddahāpana-sacca.

Taking of a corporal oath.

Before the subject-matter of an oath was put into writing as a sacred text, taking of an oath was done verbally and was called "swearing of an oath." Since written sacred oath came into existence, purely verbal taking of an oath has been replaced by holding the sacred text (or placing it on one's head); thus taking of a corporal oath by holding a sacred text has come into use. This gives rise in Myanmar parlance to "holding the sacred text" for taking a corporal oath and "administering the corporal oath" for making someone else hold the sacred text. Only the form of taking an oath for oneself, whether it is taken verbally or by holding the sacred text, in order to convince others saying, "What I have said is the truth; if not, such and such a misfortune befall me", etc., should be named Saddahāpana-sacca.

[ 282 ] Curse.

An utterance not based on truth, but made just to consign others to destruction is not an oath, but merely a curse. An example may be seen in the following story.

The story of two hermits.

In the past, while King Brahmadatta was reigning in the city of Bārānasī, a hermit, Devila by name, was living in the Himalayas; on his visit to Bārāṇasī in order to have acid and salt, he stayed in a potter's hut near the city with the owner's permission. Soon another hermit called Nārada came for a similar purpose and stayed at the same place. At night when the time for sleeping came, the newcomer noted Devīla's sleeping place as well as the door at the entrance to the hut and went to bed. But, after lying down at his place, Devila moved to the entrance and slept crosswise in the middle of the doorway.

When Nārada went out in the dead of the night he happened to tread on Devīla's matted hair. Devīla then said: "Who has stepped on my hair?" Nārada replied gently: "Sir, I have, because I did not know that you were sleeping here. Please accept my apology." And he left the hut while Devila was grumbling.

Then lest the other one should do it again when he came back, Devīla completely reversed his lying position and went to sleep. When Nārada returned he thought: "When I went out I wrongly stepped on his hair because I did not know where his head lay; I shall now go in by the other way." Thus he happened to tread on his neck. Devila asked: "Who trod on my neck?" "It is I, Sir, said Nārada. "You wicked hermit!" said Devila, "The first time you stepped on my hair. This time, you did the same but on my neck. Curse you, I will." "Sir, I am not guilty," said Nārada, "The first time I was wrong because I did not know the way you were sleeping. Now I came by way of the foot-end not to wrong again. Please padon me," apologized Nārada.

[ 283 ] "O wicked hermit, I am going to curse you", threatened Devīla. Then despite Nārada's plea, Devīla uttered a curse, "Tomorrow morning as soon as the sun rises, may your head be split into seven pieces!" "In spite of my apologies you did curse me," said Nārada, "May the guilty one's head be split into seven pieces". Thus Nārada put Devīla under a curse in retaliation. (Unlike Devila's curse, Nārada's was free of anger and volition to harm him. He cursed him just to make him fear and admit his wrong. He was so powerful that he could see eighty kappas-the past forty and the future forty.) When he looked into Devīla's future he foresaw that the latter would be destroyed. So out of compassion for Devīla, he tried with his power to prevent the sun from rising.

When the sun did not rise at the time it was due to, people thronged to the palace and shouted in unison: "O King, The sun does not rise while you are ruling over us. Please improve your conduct so that the sun reappears. The king pondered his conduct and did not see anything wrong. He thought that there must be some peculiar reason which might be a quarrel among ascetics in his country. On enquiry, he came to know the quarrel between the two hermits. The king then went overnight to the hermits. Under instructions from Nārada, he placed a solid mass of earth on Devīla's head and made him plunge into a pond by force. When Nārada withdraw his power, no sooner had the sun risen than the solid mass of earth was split into seven pieces. Devīla then moved to another place in the water and came out of it safe and sound. (Dhammapada Commentary, I. Yamaka Vagga, 3. Tissa Vatthu.)

Devīla's curse in this story, "Tomorrow morning as soon as the sun rises, may your head be split into seven pieces!", is for Nārada uttered with anger. Thus it was not an oath but a mere curse.

Like the curse in this story, there are curses recorded in the Myanmar inscriptions of old. For instance, the Nadaungtat Pagoda inscription dated 537 (M.E.) on the northern side of Cūlāmuni Pagoda of Bagan reads near [ 284 ] the end, "He who destroys my work of merit, may the seven generations of his descendants be destroyed. May he suffer in Avīci Hell and may he not be liberated but become rooted there even when Buddhas of successive kappas come and try to save him." Such a curse is something that is not done by Bodhisattas. In fact, it is a verbal evil called 'harsh speech' (pharusa-vācā). In other words, it is the kind of abusive words uttered by mean persons.

Saddahāpana-sacca may be understood not only from the Bhisa Jātaka but also from the Sutasoma Story of the Asiti Nipāta of the Jātaka. A summary of this latter story runs as folIows.

(Once the cannibal Porisada, who formerly was king of Bāranasi but now living in a forest, made a vow to bathe the trunk of a banyan tree with the blood of a hundred and one kings if his foot that was pierced by an acacia thorn were healed in seven days. The foot was healed and he succeeded in capturing one hundred princes. At the command of the deity of the tree to make the number of captured kings complete, he was to catch King Sutasoma of Kuru. He managed to do so while Sutasoma was returning from Migājina Park and carried him away on his shoulder.) Then Sutasoma said: "I have to go home for a while. Because on my way to Migājina Park I met a Brahmin, Nanda, who offered to teach me four verses worth four hundred pieces. I have promised him to learn them on my way back from the Park and asked him to wait. Let me go and learn the verses and keep my promise. After that I will come back to you.

You sound like saying having been freed from the hands of death, I will come back to death!" replied the maneater. "I do not believe you."

Then Sutasoma said, "Friend Porisāda, in the world, death after living a virtuous life is better than a longlife full of wickedness as it is blamed by others. Words uttered not truthfully cannot protect one from rebirth in a woeful state after one's death. Friend Porisāda, you may rather believe if somebody were to say "The strong [ 285 ] winds blew away rocky mountains into the sky', or 'The sun and the moon have fallen to earth', or 'All rivers flow upstream', but never you believe if somebody says, "Sutasoma tells lies'. Friend Porisāda, if somebody says, 'The sky has been split up', or 'The Ocean has dried up', or 'Mount Meru has been wiped out without a trace', you may believe it. But never do you believe if somebody says, 'Sutasoma tells lies." Still Porisāda was not fully convinced.

As Porisāda remained adamant Mahāsutasoma thought, "This Porisāda still do not believe me. I will make him believe by taking an oath." So he said, "Friend Porisāda, please put me down from your shoulder. I will convince you by taking an oath." Porisāda then put him down from his shoulder. "Friend Porisāda, I will hold the sword and the spear and take the oath. I will take leave of you for a short time and will fulfill my promise given to Brahmin Nanda to learn the verse from him in the city. Then I will come back to you to keep my promise. If I do not say the truth may I not gain rebirth in a royal family well protected by weapons such as this sword and this spear."

Then Porisāda thought, "This King Sutasoma has taken an oath which ordinary kings dare not do. No matter whether he comes back or not, I too am a king. If he does not come back I will get the blood out of my arm to sacrifice it for the deity of the banyan tree." Thus thinking Porisāda set Bodhisatta Sutasoma free.

This verbal truth of King Mahāsutasoma uttered to convince Porisāda is also Saddahāpana-sacca. This is the kind of Perfection of Truthfulness which Bodhisattas have to fulfil.

(2) Icchāpūraṇa-sacca.

This second verbal truth spoken to have one's desire fulfilled may be learnt from the Suvannasāma Story, the third story of the Mahānipāta of the Jātaka, as well as from other stories.

[ 286 ] In the Suvaṇṇasāma Jātaka, the Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma looking after his blind parents went to fetch water from a river. King Pīḷiyakkha who was out hunting saw him and shot him with an arrow mistaking him for a supernatural being. Being overcome by the poisonous effect of the arrow, the Bodhisatta became unconscious. King Pīḷiyakha brought the Bodhisatta's father and mother to the place where the Bodhisatta remained lying in a dead faint. On their arrival there his father Dukūla sat down and lifted his head while his mother Pārikā sat down, held his feet placing them on her thigh and cried. They touched their son's body and feeling the chest which still had body heat, the mother said to herself, "My son has not died yet. He is just unconscious because of the poison. I will remove that poison by my words of solemn truth." Accordingly, she made an asseveration comprising seven points:

(1) Formerly my son Sāma has practised righteousness (Dhammacāri). If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
(2) Formerly my son Sāma has engaged himself in noble practice. If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
(3) Formerly my son Sāma has spoken only truth. If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
(4) My son Sāma has looked after the parents. If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
(5) My son Sāma has shown respect to the elders in the family. If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
(6) I love my son Sāma more than my life. If this be true, may the poison that afflicts my son vanish.
[ 287 ] (7) May my Sāma's poison disappear by virtue of meritorious deeds done by his father and by me.

Then Suvaṇṇa Sāma who was lying on one side turned over to the other.

The father too thinking, "My son is still alive; I will also say words of solemn truth," made an asseveration comprising the same seven points as the mother's. Then the Bodhisatta changed again his lying position.

At that moment, a goddess, Bahusundarī by name, who had been Suvaṇṇasāma's mother for the past seven existences and who was now staying at Gandhamādana Hill, came from the Hill to the spot where Suvaṇṇaāama was lying and made her own asseveration: "I have long been dwelling at Gandhamādana Hill in the Himalayas. Throughout my life there is none whom I love more than Suvaṇṇasāma. If this be true, may Sama's poison vanish. In my abode at Gandhamādana Hill all the tree are scented ones. If this be true, may Sāma's poison vanish." While the father, the mother and the goddess were thus lamenting the handsome and youthful Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma quickly sat up.

In this story, the words of truth are uttered by mother Pārikā, father Dukūla and Goddess Bahusundarī in order to have their wish of eradicating Suvaṇṇasāma's poison and getting him well fulfilled and are therefore called Icchāpūraṇa Vacīsacca.

The story of Suppāraka.

Icchāpūraṇa-sacca occurs also in the Suppāraka story of the Ekādasaka Nipāta of the Jātaka. The story in brief is:

In days gone by the Bodhisatta, Suppāraka by name, who was highly learned, was living in the sea-port town of Kurukaccha (Bharukaccha). He had long worked as the captain of a ship and had become blind through contact [ 288 ] of his eye with the yapour of sea-water. So he retired. However, at the request of certain merchants he took control of a ship sailing out into the sea. After seven days, because of an unseasonal gale, the ship could not hold its course and wandered astray on the sea for four months. It then went beyond such seas as (1) Khuramālisamudra, (2) Aggimālisamudra, (3) Dadhimālisamudra, (4) Kusamālisamudra and (5) Naḷamālisamudra, and was about to reach the most terrible sea of Balavāmukhasamudra. At that moment Captain Suppāraka said that whoever came to this sea was not able to retreat, but would be drowned. This made all the merchants cry in fright.

Thinking, "I will save all these people by asseveration." the Bodhisatta made a solemn declaration: "Since I came of age, I have never ill-treated even a single person; I have not stolen others' property, even a blade of grass or a piece of split bamboo; I have not eyed even with an iota of lust another person's wife; I have not lied; I have not taken any intoxicating drink even with the tip of a grassblade. On account of this truthful declaration of mine, may the ship get home safe and sound." Then the ship that had wandered aimlessly for four months, turned back to Kurukaccha as though it were a mighty being and arrived at Kurukaccha port within one day by virtue of the Bodhisatta's asseveration.

This verbal truth of Suppāraka the Wise also is Icchāpūraṇa-sacca as it was made to have his wish of saving the lives of all fulfilled.

The story of King Sivi.

It is the third story of the Vīsati Nipāta. In the city of Ariṭṭhapura, Sivi country. Bodhisatta, King Sivi, gave away six hundred thousand pieces daily in charity. Even then he was not content and thought that he would like to give away parts of his body. In order to make the king's desire fulfilled, Sakka came down in the guise of a blind Brahmin to the king and said: "O king, both your eyes can see, but mine cannot. If you would give me one of yours, you can see with the remaining one and I [ 289 ] will also see with the eye given by you. So kindly give me one of your eyes." The king was delighted, for a recipient had come to him the very moment he was thinking of giving. He summoned his surgeon Sīvika and ordered: "Take out one of my eyes." The surgeon, ministers and queens all tried to dissuade him. But he stood by his order and Sīvika could do nothing but take out one of the king's eyes. Looking at the extracted eye with the one remaining, the king happily expressed his aspiration for Perfect Self-Enlightenment (Sammāsambodhi) and handed the gift of his eye over to the Brahmin.

When the Brahmin, who in reality was Sakka, put the eye into his eye-socket, it fitted in like his original. King Sivi, seeing this, was so delighted that he asked Sīvika: "Get also my other eye out." Despite protests from his ministers, the king had his remaining eye taken out and given to the Brahmin. The latter put the king's eye into the socket of his other eye which became as good as the original. He then gave his blessings and disappeared as though he had returned to his place.

As King Sivi became totally blind and was not fit to rule, he moved to a dweiling place near a pond in the royal gardens where he reflected on his act of charity. Sakka then came to him and walked to and fro nearby so that the king would hear his footsteps. When the king heard, he asked who it was. Sakka replied: "I am Sakka. Ask for any boon you want." "I have plenty of wealth such as gems, gold and silver. I want only death, for both my eyes are gone now," said the king. "O King, you say you want death. Do you really desire to die? Or do you say so only because you are blind?" When the king answered he desired so because he was blind. Sakka said: "O King, I am not able to make you see again. You can see only with the power of your truthfulness. Make a solemn declaration of truth." The King then uttered: "I adore those many people who came to me for gifts and I also adore those who actually asked for what they needed. By virtue of this verbal truth may my eye sight be restored to me." No sooner had he said so than the first [ 290 ] eye appeared in him. Then again he made another declaration of truth:

When the blind Brahmin came to me for my eye, I gave him both of mine. In so doing my heart was full of joy. By virtue of this verbal truth, may the other eye be restored to me.

Accordingly, he regained his second eye. These two eyes were not the ones which were with him at his birth; neither were they divine eyes. In fact, they were the eyes which appeared by the power of his verbal Perfection of Truthfulness.

This verbal truth of King Sivi was also Icchāpūraṇasacca as it was spoken to have his wish for the restoration of his eyesight fulfilled.

In the Maccha Story of the Varaṇa Vagga of the Ekaka Nipāta, the Bodhisatta, when reborn as a fish, made an asseveration because the water in the pond had dried up as a result of draught and the fish in it were eaten by crows. He declared solemnly: "Although I was born as a fish whose species survives by living upon one another. I have never eaten even a fish of the size of a rice-grain. By virtue of this verbal truth, may there be a great thunderous downpour." No sooner had he thus declared than there occurred a heavy rain.

Again in the Vaṭṭaka Story of the Kulāvaka Vagga of the Ekaka Nipāta, the Bodhisatta was born into a quail family. When he was still unable to fly or walk, there broke out a great forest fire and both of his parents had fled. "In this world there are such things as the virtues of pure morality, truthfulness and compassion. I have no other recourse to make but an oath of truth." Thinking thus, he uttered: "I have wings, yet I cannot fly. I have legs, yet I cannot walk. My parents have fled. O Forest Fire, please go passing by me." The forest-fire that went by from a distance of sixteen (pais) became extinct after leaving the young quail unharmed.

[ 291 ] In this connection, there is something that calls for clarification. In the aforesaid Suvaṇṇasāma Story and others, asseverations were based on meritoriousness and it is therefore appropriate that the respective wishes were fulfilled. But the young quail's asseveration was not so based. What he said was simply: "I have wings, yet 1 cannot fly; I have legs, yet I cannot walk. My parents have fled." His asseveration is in fact based on what is not meritorious. Why then had his wish been fulfilled?

The basis of an asseveration is truthfulness whether it is meritorious or not. Even if a speech is connected with meritoriousness but not spoken truthfully, it is not a verbal truth; it has no power. nor does it bear fruits. Truthfulness, which is a truthful speech alone, has power and bears fruits.

Being truthful, the Bodhisatta's speech amounted to a verbal truth and achieved what was desired. Though it was not a speech of meritoriousness, it was not demeritorious either. Even if a speech is connected with demeritoriousness, but spoken truthfully, it amounts to a verbal truth and achieves what is desired. This is known from the Kaṇha Dīpāyana Story of the Dasaka Nipāta.

(Once the Bodhisatta Dīpāyana together with a friend, after giving away their wealth, became ascetics in the Himalayas. He later came to be known as Kaṇha Dīpāyana. For more details see the Kaṇha Dīpāyana Jātaka, No. 444.) One day Kaṇha Dīpāyana was visited by the householder Maṇḍavya, the donor of his dwelling place, his wife and son Yaññadatta. While the parents were being engaged in a conversation with their teacher, Yaññadatta was playing with a top at the end of a walk. The top rolled into the hole of a mound, which was the abode of a snake. When the boy put his hand into the mound to retrieve his top, he was bitten by the snake and fell down suddenly overcome by the snake's poison.

[ 292 ] Learning what had happened to their son, they brought and placed him at the feet of Kaṇha Dīpāyana. When the parents requested him to cure their son of snakebite, he said; "I do not know any remedy for snakebite. But I will try to cure him by declaration of an oath." Placing his hand on the boy's head, he uttered: "Being tired of human society I become an ascetic. But I could live the happy life of an ascetic only for seven days. Since my eighth day as an acetic, I have not been happy up till now for fifty years. I have reluctantly struggled along only with self-restraint. By the power of this truthful saying, may the poison vanish so that the boy survives." Then the poison drained away from the boy's chest and seeped into the earth.

Yaññadatta opened his eyes; seeing his parents he called out just once, "Mother, Father," and went to sleep again writhing. The ascetic said to the father: "I have done my part. You, too, should do yours." Then the father said: "I have never been pleased whenever ascetics and brahmins visit me. But I have not let this known to any body else. Instead I have hidden my feeling. When I give alms I do it reluctantly. By this truthful saying may the poison vanish so that my little son Yaññadatta survives." The poison remaining above the waist drained away into the earth.

The boy sat up, but he still could not rise. When the father asked the mother to follow suit, she said: "I have something to declare as an oath. But I dare not do it in your presence." When the father insisted, she obliged saying: "I hate the snake that has bitten my son. I hate the boy's father as much as I hate the snake. By this truthful saying may the poison vanish so that my son survives." Then all the poison drained away into the earth; Yaññadatta stood up and played again with his top.

(The basis of the respective asseverations of the ascetic teacher and his two devotees was an unwholesome matter which each had long kept it to himself or [ 293 ] herself. Now he or she had revealed it boldly saying what was true. As this means truthfulness, their wish was completely fulfilled by its power.

In this connection, it may be asked: "If the verbal truth, whether it is based on wholesome or unwholesome matter, was fruitful as has been mentioned, can it be similarly efficacious nowadays?"

The answer is: of the three kinds of truthfulness, musāviramaṇa-sacca, avoidance of telling lies or speaking truthfully in any matter, was something that is always spoken by the virtuous. The ancient persons of virtue who had made asseverations as mentioned in the texts had lips which were the domain of truthfulness where musāviramaṇa-sacca dwelt for ever." "Such a domain was so pure and noble that truthfulness which was born in it was wish-fulfilling. In ancient times when truthfulness prospered and shone forth, an evil thing such as falsehood would quickly result in undersirable punishment; so also truthfulness would result in desirable reward. That falsehood would quickly bring about punishment in those days is known from the Cetiya story of the Aṭṭhaka Nipāta. (According to this story King Cetiya knowingly lied, saying one of the two candidates for the post of royal chaplain was senior and the other junior although the reverse was true; in consequence he was swallowed up by the earth.)

But nowadays, adhering to the maxim, 'no lie, no rhetoric', people mostly tell lies. Thus the evil domain of falsehood has been created and truthfulness born in that domain cannot produce beneficial results in a visible manner. Similarly, consequences of falsehood are not conspicuous either.

Other stories which contain fruitful asseverations are as follows:

The Naḷapāna Story of the Ekaka Nipāta tells of the reeds which became hollow throughout because of the truthfulness shown by the Bodhisatta, Monkey King.

[ 294 ] The Sambulā Story of the Tiṃsa Nipāta tells of the complete cure of Prince Sotthisena's leprosy because of the truthful words spoken by Crown Princess Sambulā.

The Temiya Story of the Mahā Nipāta tells of the birth of the Bodhisatta, Prince Temiya, to the Chief Queen Candā Devī when she made an oath of truth after her observance of Sīla.

The Janaka story of the Mahānipāta tells of the escape of Crown Prince Pola Janaka from his bondage of iron chains and from prison because of his words of truth.

The Kaṭṭhavāhana Story of the Ekaka Nipāta tells of an asseveration made by a mother, chopper of fuelwood; in order to convince the king that he was the father of her child, she threw the child into the sky taking an oath of truth, by which the boy remained sitting cross-legged in the sky.

The Mahāmora story of the Pakiṇṇaka Nipāta tells of the escape of birds from their respective cages because of an oath of truth declared by a Pacceka Buddha, who formerly as a hunter had caught the Bodhisatta, Peacock King, in a square. On hearing the Dhamma talk of the Bodhisatta he had gained enlightenment and become a Pacceka Buddha. (As advised by the Bodhisatta) he made an asseveration thus: "I am now liberated from the bondage of defilements. May all the birds that I have kept in cages at home go free the way I do." How powerful the asseveration in these stories should be thus understood.

Power of truthfulness during the Buddha's time.

Once during the Buddha's time, there befell threefold misfortune of disease, demons and famine in the city of Vesalī. The Buddha went there accompanied by bhikkhus and taught the Venerable Ananda how to recite a prayer of oath. The Venerable Ananda spent the whole night roaming within the three walls of the city chanting the prayer by virtue of which all three misfortunes vanished.

[ 295 ] This story is mentioned in detail in the Commentary of the Ratana Sutta. The prayer of oath comprising a number of verses forms a discourse of paritta, 'protection', called Ratana Sutta. It begins with an attribute of a Buddha: "In the worlds of humans, Devas, Nagas and Garuḷas, there exist various gems; but none is comparable to the gem of Buddha. By virtue of this truth may all beings be free of the threefold misfortune and be happy." In the Ratarn Sutta there are twelve verses of asseveration which reveal the various attributes of the Triple Gem-Buddha, Dhamma and Saṃgha. (Together with the three verses ascribed to Sakka, there are fifteen verses of asseveration.) This Sutta was recorded in the Buddhist Councils as the first Sutta in the Cūla Vagga of the Sutta Nipāta and as the sixth sutta of the Khuddaka Pāṭha.

The Aṅgulimāla Sutta in the Rājavagga of the Majjhima Paṇṇāsa contains another story that also took place in the lifetime of the Buddha. While the Buddha was sojourning at the Jetavana Monastery, Sāvatthi, the Venerable Aṅgulimāla reported to the Buddha about a woman in confinement who found difficulty in delivering a baby. Under instructions from the Buddha the Venerable Aṅgulimāla went to the woman to help her by means of an oath of truth. "Since the day I became a noble one," declared the Venerable Thera, "I have never intentionally taken the life of a sentient being. By virtue of this truth may the mother and the son be well." The mother then gave birth to her son without any more trouble and both were well.

In this way, in the lifetime of the Buddha, too, solemn declarations of truth was efficacious and fruitful.

Power of truthfulness during Buddhist period in Sri Lanka.

When Buddhism came to Sri Lanka after the Parinibbāna of the Buddha, Thera Mahāmitta's mother was suffering from breast cancer. The mother sent her daughter, a bhikkhuni, to the Thera for some medicine. "I know nothing of normal drugs." said the Thera, "I will tell you a certain form of medicine. 'Since the moment of my [ 296 ] ordination, I have never looked at a woman with a lustful eye. Because of this truthful declaration, may my mother become well again.' When you get back to the mother, run your fingers over her body while repeating what I have just said." The sister went back to the ailing mother and carried out his instructions. No sooner had she done so than the mother's cancerous affliction dissolved like a foam. So says the Chapter on Analysis of Sīla in the Visuddhi Magga.

A similar story is told in the Dvāra Kathā, Cittuppāda Kaṇḍa, of the Aṭṭhasālinī Commentary. While explaining the word sampattavirati, it says that a woman was suffering from a certain disease. Being told by the physician that hare's meat was needed for cure, the older brother sent the younger one, Jaggana, to a farm to look for a hare. On seeing Jaggana, a hare ran away in fright and was caught in a tangle of creepers. It then screamed. Jaggana rushed there and seized the hare. But he thought, "It is not justified to kill this little creature just to save my mother's life," and set the hare free and came back. "Have you got one?" asked the older brother. When Jaggana told his brother what he had done, the latter scolded him vehemently. Then Jaggana approached his mother and while standing by her, he uttered: "Since my birth I have never known any instance of intentional killing of a creature by me. By virtue of this truth, may my mother become well and happy." At that very moment, the mother became well and happy again.

In this way it should be noted that Icchāpūraṇa Sacca was individually performed also after the Parinibbāna of the Buddha.

(3) Musāviramaṇa Sacca.

Stories related to Musāviramaṇa Sacca are known from the Vidhura Jātaka of the Mahānipāta and other Jātakas. The following is a summary of the long narration of the Vidhura Story.

When King Korabya and Puṇṇaka the Ogre were to play a game of dice they agreed to bet as follows: should [ 297 ] the king lose Puṇṇaka would take any thing from the king except (1) the king's person, (2) the Chief Queen and (3) the white parasol. Should Puṇṇaka lose on the other hand, the king would take from him the Manomaya Gem and the thoroughbred horse. The king lost the contest and Puṇṇaka asked: "I have won, O King, give me the stakes as agreed."

As it was a fact that the king had lost, he could not refuse, but allowed Puṇṇaka to take anything he wanted. Puṇṇaka said he would take Vidhura the Minister. Then the king pleaded, "The Minister is my person. He is also my refuge. Therefore he should not be compared with other treasures of mine such as gold, silver etc., He should be compared only with my life. Thus I cannot surrender him."

Then Puṇṇaka said: "We shall not get anywhere if we are arguing whether he belongs to you or not. Let us go to him and abide by his decision." The king agreed and they went to the Minister whom Puṇṇaka asked: "O Minister, as the Minister of the Kurus you are praised even by Devas for standing in righteousness. Is it true? Are you King Korabya's servant? Are you a relative of the king's and of equal rank? Or are you a relative of the king's but of higher rank? Is your name Vidhura meaningful (anvattha) or without meaning (ruḷhī)?"

(The last question means to say like this: In this world there are two kinds of names. The first is ruḷhī, a name, the meaning of which does not agree with what it represents; instead, it is a name given at random. The other is anvatths, a name, the meaning of which agrees with what it represents. For example, if some ugly person is named Maung Hla (Pretty Boy), it is just a ruḷhī name because the name does not suit the boy. If some handsome person is named Maung Hla, it is an anvattha name because it goes well the appearance.

When Puṇṇaka asked whether Vidhura's name was ruḷhī or anvattha, he wanted to verify whether the Minister was righteous or not, for the name Vidhura [ 298 ] signifies a virtuous person who eradicates evils. Should the Minister not abide by righteousness, his name would then be ruḷhī, a name given to him with no significance. Should he abide by righteousness, his name would then be anvattha, a name in harmony with his true nature.

Should the Minister not abide by righteousness, his name would then be ruḷhī, a name given to him with no significance. Should he abide by righteousness, his name would then be anvattha, a name in harmony with his true nature.)

Then the Minister thought to himself: "I can say that I am a relative of the king's," or "I am of higher rank" or "I am not at all related to the king." "But in this world there is no refuge like truthfulness. I should speak out what is true." So he said: "Friend, there are four kinds of servitude in the world:

(1) the servitude of one born of a female slave,
(2) the servitude of one bought by money,
(3) the servitude of one who serves voluntarily, and
(4) the servitude of a prisoner of war.

Of these four servitudes, I am a servant who comes to serve the king voluntarily." So the Minister answered truthfully.

Such an answer given truthfully without deceit was a speech of truth but not Saddahāpana Sacca because the speech was made not to convince others; nor was it Icchāpūraṇa Sacca because it was made not to get one's wish fulfilled. It was made just to avoid telling lies and therefore was Musāviramaṇa Sacca only.

Similarly, in the Suvaṇṇa Sāma Jātaka when King Pīḷiyakkha asked Suvaṇṇa Sāma "What is your clan? Whose son are you? Tell me the clan to which you and your father belong," he would have believed if Suvaṇṇa Sāma were to say: "I am a Deva," or "a Nāga" or "a Kinnara" or "of a royal family," or if he were to give any other answer. [ 299 ] But he thought he should say nothing but the truth; so he said truthfully: "I am a fisherman's son." Suvaṇṇa Sāma's speech was like Vidhura's: it was not to make others believe; nor was it to get his wish fulfilled. In fact, it was a speech made to avoid falsehood and therefore was Musāviramaṇa Sacca.

In the Bhūridatta Jātaka also, when Nesāda Brahmin approached the (Nāga) Bodhisatta who was observing the precepts, and asked him: "Who are you? Are you a powerful god? Or are you a mighty Nāga?" "This man will believe me," thought the Nāga King, "even if I say I am a divine being. But I ought to tell him the truth," and told him that he was a powerful Nāga. This speech of the Nāga King, like Vidhura's, was made not to make others believe; nor was it to have one's wish fulfilled. But as it was made to avoid falsehood and to reveal the truth, it was Musāviramaṇa Sacca.

What constitutes the sixth of the Ten Perfections is this Musāviramaṇa Sacca. Bodhisattas of old always made it a point to cultivate this kind of speech which is an avoidance of falsehood. They fulfilled their Perfection of Truthfulness by speaking truthfully existence after existenae. If they kept silent to avoid having to tell lies and to observe truthfulness, it was not pure verbal truth (vacī sacca) because there was no speech at all. It was only Virati Sacca, avoidance of falsehood.

Use of the three kinds of truth by Bodhisattas.

Only when circumstances demand to convince others did Bodhisattas use truth of the first kind, Saddahāpanasacca; otherwise they did not. Similarly, only when they were required to get their wish fufilled, they made use of the truth of the second kind, Icchāpūraṇa-Sacca: As regards the third kind, Musāviramaṇa-sacca, they always resorted to it on all occasions. Following their examples, those who are virtuous should speak Musāviramaṇa-sacca and make efforts to cultivate it.

[ 300 ] Two kinds of Truth.

The aforesaid truths may be classified under two heads only, namely,

(1) Vacībhedasiddhi Sacca ( Truth that accomplishes something the moment one speaks)
(2) Pacchānurakkhaṇa Sacca (Truth that entails a follow-up after one has spoken).

As has been mentioned before, the Saddahāpana Sacca of the Bhisa Jātaka, the Icchāpūraṇa Vacīsacca of the Suvaṇṇa Sāma, Suppāraka, Sivi, Maccha, Vaṭṭaka, Kaṇhadīpāyana, Naḷapāna, Sambulā, Temiya, Janaka, Kaṭṭhavāhana and Mahāmora Jātakas, and the Musāviramaṇa Sacca of the Vidhura, Suvaṇṇa Sāma and Bhūridatta Jātakas produced results as soon as they were individually spoken out. There was nothing more to be performed to achieve results. Therefore such truths are to be known as Vacībhedasiddhi Sacca.

But Truthfulness shown by King Sutasoma to Porisāda in the above-mentioned Mahā Sutasoma Jātaka was different. It was a Saddahapana Sacca spoken to convince Porisāda that he would definitely return to hint. This promise would be fulfilled when the king did return to the cannibal and only then would his truthfulness be established. For this he had to make special arrangements to effect his return to the Bodhisatta. This truthfulness of King Sutasoma was therefore of Pacchānurakkhaṇa Saccatype.

In the same way, the truthfulness practised by King Jayadisa in the Jayadisa Jātaka of the Tiṃsa Nipāta and that practised by Prince Rāma in the Dasaratha are both Pacchānurakkhaṇa Sacca.

With reference to King Jayadisa's truthfulness, here is the story in brief. While King Jayadisa of Uttara Pañcāla City in the Kingdom of Kapila was going on a hunting spree, he met on the way Nanda Brahmin who had come back from Takkasīla and who wished to deliver a discourse. [ 301 ] The King promised him to hear the discourse on his return and went to the forest.

On arrival in the forest, the king and his ministers divided the hunting ground among themselves, each one to his own allocated area to catch deer. But one escaped through the King's location and the king had to pursue it with all his might. After a long pursuit, he managed to catch the deer; he cut it into two halves and carried them hung from a pole on his shoulder. Having taken a rest for a short while under a banyan tree he stood up to continue his journey. At that moment the human-ogre who was dwelling at the banyan tree prevented him from going; he said: "You have now become my prey. You must not go." (A human ogre is not a real ogre. He was, in fact, the king's older brother, who while an infant was caught by an ogress. But she had no heart to eat the baby and brought him up as her own son. So he had an ogre's mental and physical behaviours. When his foster mother, the ogress, died, he was left alone and lived like an ogre.)

Then King Jayadisa said: "I have an appointment with a Brahmin who has come back from Takkasīla. I have promised him to hear his discourse, Let me go and hear it after which I will come back and be true to my word." The human ogre set him free readily accepting the king's assurance. (The human-ogre and the king were brothers in reality. Because of their blood relationship, which was not realized by both, the former had some compassion for the latter and let him go.) The king came back and heard the Brahmin's discourse and was about to return to the human-ogre. At that moment his son, Prince Alinasattu, (the Bodhisatta) pleaded with the king that he should go on behalf of his father. As the son insisted, the father allowed him to go. The king's word, "I will come back", had to be kept and made true after it had been spoken; so it was a Pacchānurakkaṇa Sacca.

The story of Prince Rāma in brief is: After giving birth to the older son, Rāma, the younger son, Lakkhaṇa and the daughter, Sitā Devī, King Dasaratha's Chief Queen [ 302 ] passed away. The king took a new queen of whom Prince Bharata was born. The new queen repeatedly pressed the king to hand over the throne to her own son Bharata. The king summoned his two senior sons and said: "I am worried about you, for you might be in danger because of the new queen and her son Bharata. The astrologers have told me that I would live twelve more years. So you should stay in a forest for twelve years after which you should come back and take over the kingship."

Then Prince Rāma promised his father to obey him and the two brothers left the city. They were joined by their sister as she refused to be separated from them. In spite of the astrologers' prediction, the king died after nine years because of his worries about his children. Then the ministers who did not want to have Bharata as their king went after the royal children. They told them of the king's death and requested them to return to the city and rule over the people. But Prince Rāma said: "I have promised my father to return only after twelve years as my father had ordered. If I return now, I will not be keeping my promise to my father. I do not want to break my word. Therefore take away my brother, Prince Lakkhaṇa, and my sister, Sitā Devī to make them crown prince and crown princess and you ministers yourselves rule the country." Here Prince Rāma had to wait for the end of the time limit so that what he had agreed upon with his father would be substantiated. This too was Pacchānurakkhaṇa Sacca.

Truth concerning time.

In order to make an easy distinction between Vacībhedasiddhi Sacca and Pacchānurakkhaṇa Sacca, there are four kinds of truth according to a brief classification:

(1) Truth concerning the past only,
(2) Truth concerning the past and the presant,
(3) Truth concerning the future only, and
(4) Truth concerning no particular time.

[ 303 ] Of these four, the one concerning the future was Pacchānurakkhaṇa Sacca and the remaining three are Vacībhedasiddha Sacca.

Of the truths in the Suvaṇṇasāma Jātaka, the collection of truths uttered by the Bodhisatta's parents concerned the past, for they said: "Sāma had formerly practised Dhamma, he used to cultivate only noble practices; he used to speak only the truth; he had looked after his parents; he had shown respects to the elders."

The truth uttered by his parents that "We love Suvanna Sāma more than our lives" and the truth uttered by the Goddess Bahusundarī that "There is none whom I love more than Sāma" were truths which concern no particular time.

The collection of Icchāpūraṇa Saccas in the Suppāraka and Sivi Jātakas concerned the past. Similarly, that contained in the Kaṇha Dīpāyana and Naḷapāna Jātakas also concerned the past.

In the Vaṭṭaka Jātaka, the utterance, "I have wings, yet I cannot fly; 1 have legs, yet I cannot walk," concerned both the past and the present.

The truth saying "There is none whom I love more than you," in the Sambulā Jātaka and that of the Chief Queen, Candā Devī in the Temiya Jātaka concerned no particular time.

In this way, the relationship between the truths and their respective times referred to may be considered and noted.

The Supreme Perfection of Truthfulness.

With reference to the Perfection of Truthfulness, the Aṭṭhasālinī Commentary and the Commentary on the Buddhavaṃsa explain that King Mahāsutasoma's Perfection of Truthfulness was the Supreme Perfection because, in order to keep his word true, the king went back to Porisāda as promised at the risk of his own life. In this case, [ 304 ] the vow was made in the presence of Porisāda but as it was a mere utterance, its purpose had not yet been fulfilled; to fulfill it the vow still remained to be kept. As he had promised, "I will come back", he returned even after he had been back in the city of Indapattha. At first when he promised "I will come back" his sacrifice of life did not appear imminent. It became so only when he returned to Porisāda from Indapattha. Therefore in the Commentaries, he is mentioned as "the King who protected his truthfulness sacrificing his life" (jīvitaṃ cajitvā saccam anurakkhantassa) but not as "the king who made an oath at the risk of his life" (jīvitaṃ cajitvā saccaṃ bhaṇantassa.)

Thoughts on the two kinds of truth.

In this connection, the truthfulness of King Mahā Sutasoma and that of Minister Vidhura are worthy of a camparative study. The minister's truthfulness was his truthful saying that "I am a servant" as is told in the verse 102 of the Vidhura Jātaka. As soon as he said so his truthfulness was accomplished. But when he said that, he had nothing to worry about his life. He could not die just being a servant. Therefore one might say that Vidhura's truthfulness was inferior to Sutasoma's.

However, it may be considered that Vidhura was prepared to sacrifice his life thinking to himself: "That young man may like to do away with me after taking me away. If he does so I will accept death." For, as he was wise, he must have kept pondering like this: "This young man asked for me not to honour me. If he had a desire to honour me, he would have openly told me his purpose and invited me for the same. Now he had not invited me. He won possession of me by gambling and would not set me free." Besides, though he was a young man, he was an ogre (by birth). Seeing his behaviour, the minister must have noticed that he was a wild tough person. Another thing that should be taken into consideration is this: When Vidhura had (by way of farewell) exhorted the king and his family members, and said: "I have done my job," the young ogre, Puṇṇaka, replied: "Do not be afraid. [ 305 ] Firmly hold on to the tail of my horse. This will be the last time for you to see the world while you are living." (Verse 196). Vidhura boldly retorted: "I have done no evil that would lead to the woeful states. Why should I be afraid." From this word of the minister, it is clear that the minister had decided to sacrifice his life.

All this points to the fact that Vidhura's truthfulness contained some element of taking risk of life and was thus not inferior to Sutasoma's. It should be concluded that it was, if not superior, of the same class as that of Sutasoma.

Moral Lesson.

The unique feature of this Perfection of Truthfulness in contrast to the previous ones is that it posesses the power to have one's desire fulfilled because of the truth uttered. In the Sutasoma Jātaka (verse 62) also it is said: "Of all the tastes which prevail on this earth, the taste of truth is the sweetest." Therefore one should exert great efforts in order to enjoy the delicious taste of truth.

Here ends the Chapter on the Perfection on Truthfulness.

(h) The Perfection of Resolution (Adhitthāna Pāramī).

The Pāḷi word adhiṭṭhāna is usually translated 'resolution'. (Then the author goes on to explain the Myanmar word which is a translation not only of adhiṭṭhāna but also of samādāna used in observing precepts. As the author's explanation, though elaborate, is chiefly concerned with the Myanmar word, we left it out from our translation.) If one fulfils adhiṭṭhāna as a Perfection, one has to establish it firmly and steadfastly in one's mind. That was why when the Bodhisatta Sumedha reflected on Adhiṭṭhāna Pāramī, he likened it to a rocky mountain which is unshaken by strong winds remaining firmly rooted at its own place.

[ 306 ] From this comparison, it is clear that adhiṭṭhāna means bearing in mind without wavering at all as regards what one is determined to do. Therefore if one intends to attain the knowledge of the Path and Fruition or Omniscience (i.e.. if one is determined to become a Buddha) one's determination to practise for achieving them must be borne in mind as firmly as a rocky mountain.

Various Resolutions.

Resolution has thus been likened to an unshaken mountain and there are various kinds of resolution as described in the texts.

Resolution concerning Uposatha.

The Uposathakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahāvagga mentions three kinds Uposatha: Saṃgha Uposatha, Gaṇa Uposatha and Puggala Uposatha. Saṃgha Uposatha is the one that is observed at the meeting of minimum four bhikkhus in a sima on full-moon and new-moon days. There the Pātimokkha is recited by one bhikkhu to whom others listen respectfully. Such an observance is also called Suttuddesa Uposatha (Uposatha observance with a brief recitation of the Text of the disciplinary rules).

If there are only two or three bhikkhus, they observe Gaṇa Uposatha because the word Saṃgha is used for a meeting of at least four bhikkhus; when there are only two or three bhikkhus the word gaṇa is used. If the number of bhikkhus is three in a Gaṇa Uposatha a motion is put first and if it is two, no motion is needed. Then each of the bhikkhus declares in Pāḷi that he is free from any offence. Therefore it is also known as Pārisuddhi Uposatha (Uposatha meeting where bhikkhus declare their individual purity).

If there is only one bhikkhu, he observes Puggala Uposatha. But before doing so, he should wait for other bhikkhus to join him provided there is still time. When the time has passed without other bhikkhus arriving, he is to observe the uposatha alone. The Buddha had enjoined that he is to resolve: "Today is my uposatha day." This [ 307 ] means that he is mindful of this day constantly. Such an uposatha is known as Adhiṭṭhāna Uposatha (Uposatha kept firmly in one's mind.) This is the resolution concerning uposatha.

Resolution concerning the robe.

Bhikkhus are required to perform adhiṭṭhāna or vikappanā concerning the robe within ten days after its acquisition. If the robe is kept more than ten days without performing either, it is to be discarded according to the Vinaya. The bhikkhu concerned also commits thereby a pācittiya offence: Therefore within ten days of its acquisition, one must resolve saying, "I undertake to put on this robe." Then the robe is not to be discarded and he does not commit the offence. Resolution concerning the robe means making up one's mind firmly to use the robe either as a lower garment, or an upper garment or an outer garment or for general use. (Paṭhama Sikkhāpada, Nissaggiya cīvara Vagga, Vinaya Pārajika.)

Resolution concerning the bowl.

Similarly, when a bhikkhu acquires a bowl he should resolve within ten days of its acquisition, saying: "I undertake to use this bowl." If he does not do so in ten days he has to discard it as required by the Vinaya. He also commits a Pācittiya offence. Resolution concerning the bowl means determining firmly that "this receptacle is my bowl."

Adhiṭṭhāna in these three cases is used as a techical term belonging to the Vinaya. It has nothing to do with the following three cases.

Resolution concerning Jhāna.

In the case of Jhāna, when for instance, the First Jhāna has been attained, one should cultivate and develop it in five ways of vasībhāva; so it is said in the Pathavīkasiṇa Niddesa and in other places of the Visuddhi Magga. Vasibhāva, a Pāḷi word, means 'mastery'. So five way of [ 308 ] vasibhāva are five kinds of mastery. When the First Jhāna has been attained one is to continue practising it until one gains complete mastery of the Jhāna in all five kinds.

The first kind is āvajjana, 'reflection', i.e., reflection as to what factors are contained in his Jhāna and as to which factor is of what character. At the beginning, he does not discern them easily. There may be a delay, for he is not yet skilled in reflecting. As he gains experience, he discerns them more easily. Then he is said to be endowed with mastery of reflection.

The second kind is samāpajjana, 'absorption', Jhāna consciousness being absorbed into the stream of one's consciousness, (i.e., Jhāna consciousness continuously arising in the stream of one's consciousness). After mastering reflection he has to gain mastery of absorption. He can do so by repeatedly developing the Jhāna he has attained (just as by repeatedly reciting, one can master the literary piece that one has learnt by heart). If he tries for absorption before attainment of such mastery, Jhāna consciousness does not arise easily in the stream of one's consciousness. This becomes easier only after mastering the development of Jhāna. Then he is said to be endowed with mastery of absorption.

The third kind is adhiṭṭhāna, 'resolution', i.e., determining as to how long he wants to remain in Jhāna. If he tries to determine the duration of absorption before mastery of resolution, Jhāna consciousness may occur for either longer or shorter period than that of his determination. Suppose he resolves, "Let Jhāna consciousness constitute my stream of consciousness for one hour," the Jhāna attainment may break off before or after one hour. This is because he is not yet skilled in making resolution. Once he is skilful enough he can remain in Jhāna for the exact length of the time he has resolved. Then he is said to be endowed with mastery of resolution.

The fourth kind is vutthāna, 'rising from Jhāna'. (Rising from Jhāna means change of Jhāna consciousness to life-continuum, bhavaṅga-citta.) Mastery of rising from Jhāna at the exact time of his determination is called vutthānavasībhāva.

[ 309 ] The fifth kind is paccavekkhaṇa, 'reviewing' i.e., recollecting all the factors contained in the Jhāna. In thus recollecting, as in the kind of āvajjana, they do not become manifest to him easily for lack of mastery on his part. Only when he gains mastery, they become manifest more easily. (Reflection, āvajjana, is a stage in the process of reviewing, paccavekkhaṇa-vīthi, and reviewing, paccavekkhaṇa; is the stage that immediately follows the stage of reflection. If he has mastered āvajjana, he has mastered paccavekkhaṇa as well. Therefore he who is endowed with mastery of reflection is endowed with mastery of reviewing; so it is stated in the texts.)

Among the five kinds of mastery, what we are concerned with here is adhiṭṭhāna-vasībhāva, 'mastery of resolution'

Resolution concerning Iddhi.

The Iddhividha Niddesa of the Visuddhimagga enumerates ten kinds of Iddhi, supernormal power.

(1) Adhiṭṭhāna Iddhi, (6) Ariya Iddhi,
(2) Vikubbana Iddhi, (7) Kammavipākaja Iddhi,
(3) Manomaya Iddhi, (8) Puññavanta Iddhi,
(4) Ñāṇavipphāra Iddhi, (9) Vijjāmaya Iddhi, and
(5) Samādhivipphāra Iddhi, (10) Sammāpayoga Iddhi.

(Iddhi as a Pāḷi word means accomplishment-gaining one's wish. In Myanmar it means supernormal power.)

(1) Adhiṭṭhāna Iddhi: Power concerning resolution; when, for instance, one resolves: "Let there be a hundred or a thousand images of myself," then the images appear miraculously and their number is exactly what one has determined. (It is the power to project one's images without oneself disappearing. The images may or may not be in one's original posture.)

(2) Vikubbana Iddhi: Power concerning transformation of oneself into the form of a naga or of a garula. (Vi means 'various' and kubbana 'making'. It is the power to make oneself assume various forms as one wishes.)

[ 310 ] (3) Manomaya Iddhi: Power concerning creation of mind-made image, i.e. to create a miniature image of oneself inside own body. Manomaya means 'mind-made'. (It is neither the projection of images as in the case of Adhiṭṭhāna Iddhi nor the transformation of one's form as in the case of Vikubbana Iddhi. It is the power to create a miniature image of oneself inside own body.)

(4) Ñāṇavipphāra Iddhi: Power concerning miraculous phenomena due to the influence of imminent supramundane wisdom. This power should be understood from the stories of the Venerable Bākula and others.

Bākula Thera.

The story of Bākula occurs in the commentary on the Etadagga Vagga, Ekaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. The following is an extract in brief from the same story.

Bākula was son of a wealthy man of Kosambī. The day his birth was celebrated the infant was taken to the River Yamunā for ceremonial bath and was swallowed by a fish. The fish feeling very hot in the stomach swam away. On its arrival at Bārāṇasī, a certain fisherman caught it and hawked it in the city. The wife of a wealthy man of Bārāṇasī bought the fish and when its stomach was cut open, a beautiful baby was found inside the fish. Since she had no child of her own and was longing for one, she was extremely delighted saying to herself: "This is my very own."

When the strange news reached the natural parents of Kosambī they hurried to Bārāṇasī to claim their son. But the lady of Bārāṇasī refused to give him back, saying: "The baby came to us because we deserve him. We cannot return him to you." When they went to court to settle the dispute, the judges gave their verdict that the baby equally belonged to both pairs of parents. In this way, the baby had two mothers and two fathers, on account of which he was named Bākula. (Bā=two, kula= family; hence a boy of two families.)

[ 311 ] It was a miracle that the boy was harmless though he was swallowed up by a fish. The miracle was due to the power of the Arahattamagga Ñāṇa and was certainly to be attained by Bākula in that very existence. (Or may be it was due to the influence of the glorious Pāramī Ñāṇa that was inherent in the boy and that would enable him to attain without fail the Arahattamagga Ñāṇa in that very life.) Such power is said to be Ñāṇavipphāra Iddhi.

Saṃkicca Sāmanera.

Saṃkicca Sāmaṇera was conceived by the daughter of a householder of Sāvatthi. The mother died when she was about to give birth to the baby. While her body was being cremated it was pierced with iron spikes so that the better it might burn. A spike hurt the baby's eye and the baby cried. Knowing that the baby was still alive, people took the body down from the funeral pyre, cut open the stomach and took out the baby. The baby grew up in due course and at the age of seven became an Arahant.

The boy's miraculous escape from death was also attributed to the power of the Arahattamagga Ñāṇa. (Or it was attributed to the influence of the power of the boy's inherent Pāramī Nāṇa that helped him attain the Arahattamagga Ñāṇa:)

(5) Samādhivipphāra Iddhi: Power by the influence of concentration. The miraculous phenomenon that occurs when one is about to enter upon or is entering upon or has just entered upon Jhāna is due to the influence of samādhi. The power that causes such a miracle is called Samādhivipphāra Iddhi. With reference to this power the Visuddhimagga narrates a number of stories beginning with the story of Sāriputta, which alone will be reproduced here.

Sāriputta Mahā Thera.

One day while the Venerable Sāriputta was staying with the Venerable Moggalāna at a gorge called Kapota, [ 312 ] he had his head newly shaven and engaged himself in Jhāna in an open space during a moonlit night. When a mischievous ogre came with a friend of his and seeing the Mahā Thera's cleanly-shaven, shining head, became desirous of striking it with his hand. His friend advised him not to do so; yet he struck the Mahā Thera's head with all his might. The blow was so hard that the sound of it roared violently like thunder. But the Mahā Thera felt no pain as the power of samādhi pervaded throughout his body.

(6) Ariya Iddhi: When Ariyas (Noble Ones) desire to contemplate on loathsome objects as though they were unloathsome or on unloathsome objects as though they were loathsome, they can do so. Such power of Ariya to contemplate on any object in whatever way they wish is called Ariya Iddhi (Power of Noble Ones.)

(7) Kammavipākaja Iddhi: Creatures like birds fly in the sky. To possess that ability to fly they do not have to make any special effort in the present life. It is a result of what they did in past existences. Devas, Brahmas, the first inhabitants of the world and Vinipātika Asuras have also the ability to move about in space. The power to perform such feats is Kammavipākaja Iddhi.

(8) Puññavanta Iddhi: Cakkavattis (Universal Monarchs) and the like can travel in space. They can do so because they have accumulated merits for themselves. Those who accompany the Universal Monarch in his aerial travels can do so because they are associated with the monarch who is the real possessor of merits. The riches and luxuries that belonged to such wealthy persons as Jotika, Jaṭila, Ghosaka, Meṇḍaka and others are also Puññavanta Iddhi.

(The difference between Kammavipākaja Iddhi and Puññavanta Iddhi is this: Kammavipākaja Iddhi is the power not due to one's deeds done in the present life but due to one's deeds done in the past; it accompanies one's birth. Puññavanta Iddhi is due not only to one's past deeds but also due to one's present efforts made in [ 313 ] support of those deeds. It does not accompany one's birth; it becomes full and operative only when supported by one's deeds of the present life. To illustrate: to the Cakkavatti, the Treasure of Wheel does not arise at his birth. It arises only when he has observed certain precepts and fulfilled special duties of a Universal Monarch. So this particular power is due not entirely to one's past deeds but also due to one's present supporting efforts.)

(9) Vijjāmaya Iddhi: Aerial travels and such feats by Vijjādharas (Bearers of magical knowledge). (The power acquired by means of the art of specially contrived mantras, medicine etc.)

(10) Sammāpayoga Iddhi: the power that accrues from various accomplishments. (The scope covered by this Iddhi is vast. The Path and Fruition that are attained as a result of proper endeavours is the highest form of Sammāpayoga Iddhi. In short, all accomplishments that result from learning arts and crafts, the three Vedas, the three Piṭakas or (to say the least,) from agricultural activities such as ploughing, sowing etc., are all Sammāpayoga Iddhi.)

Of these ten Iddhis, the first, Adhiṭṭhānaiddhi, is the power of resolution to project images of oneself by the hundred or by the thousand-the power possessed by the Venerable Cūḷa Panthaka and others. Ordinary people who are not possessors of such power make similar resolutions; but because they lack the basic factor of Jhāna or Samādhi, they do not realize what they have resolved; on the other hand, possessors of such power have their resolution fulfilled because their Jhāna or Samādhi is strong enough to help them.

Adhiṭṭhāna preceding Nirodhasamāpatti.

When an Anāgāmi or an Arahant who is endowed with all eight samāpattis is about to enter upon Nirodhasamāpatti, he resolves thus: "During the period of my absorption in the samāpatti, let no destruction befall my belongings that are kept apart from me. If the Saṃgha wants my presence, may I be able to rise from my [ 314 ] samāpatti before the messenger comes to me. Promptly may I be able to do so when the Buddha summons me." Only after resolving thus he enters upon samāpatti.

In accordance with his resolution, during the period of his absorption in the samāpatti, his personal effects kept apart from him cannot be destroyed by the five kinds of enemy. When the Saṃgha wants him during that very period, he has already arisen from his samāpatti before the messenger's arrival. No sooner has the Buddha called for him than he emerges from his samāpatti. No damage can be done by the five enemies to his possessions such as robes etc., that are on his body because of the power of his samāpatti even though he has not resolved previously for their safety.

Three kinds of Adhiṭthāna.

Resolution is of three kinds according to context:

(1) Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna (Resolution made so that portending signs appear before something happens);
(2) Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna (Resolution made so that one's dream comes true); and
(3) Vata Adhitṭhāna (Resolution made so that one's duties are fulfilled).

(1) Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna.

This kind of Adhiṭṭhāna may be understood from the Campeyya Jātaka of the Vīsati Nipāta and other stories. The extract from the Campeyya Jātaka in brief is: When the Nāga King Campeyya told his queen Sumanā that he would go to the human abode to observe precepts, the queen said: "The human abode is full of dangers. If something happens to you by which signs should I know?" The Nāga King took her to the royal pond and said: "Look at the pond. Should I be caught by [ 315 ] an enemy, the water will become dark. Should I be caught by a Garuḷa, the water will boil. Should I be caught by a snake-charmer, the water will turn red like blood." After that the Nāga King left for the human abode to observe precepts for fourteen days.

But the king could not return home even after about a month, for he was caught by a snake-charmer. Worried about his safety, the queen went to the pond and saw the surface of the water red like blood.

This resolution of the Nāga King Campeyya is Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna because he made the firm determination beforehand for the appearance of portending signs.

Similarly, according to the Introduction to the Jātaka Commentary, when Prince Siddhattha renounced the world, he cut off his hair and threw it up into the sky resolving: "May this hair remain in the sky if I would become enlightened; if not let it fall back to the ground." The hair hanged in the sky like a festoon. This resolution, too, made to know in advance whether or not he would become a Buddha is Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna.

Again, after six years of strenuous asceticism, when he had eaten the milkrice offered by Sujātā on the bank of the Nerañjarā, he set the golden bowl afloat on the river with the resolution; "If I would become a Buddha, may this bowl go upstream; if not may it go downstream," and the bowl went upstream until it reached the Nāga King Kāla. The resolution in this account also is a Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna.

Similarly, any resolution made in the world to know beforehand by portent whether one's wish will be fulfilled or not is Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna. This kind of Adhiṭṭhāna is still practised today and is thus well known. Some people are used to lifting the stone placed at a famous pagoda or at a nat (spirit) shrine after resolving: "If my plan would materialise, may the stone be heavy; if not may it be light," or vice versa. After lifting the stone they read the omen whether they would succeed or not from the feel of the stone's weight.

(2) Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna

[ 316 ] Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna is a resolution made so that one's wish gets fulfilled. This kind of resolution may be known from the Vidhura Jātaka.

(When Vidhura the Minister was about to be taken away from King Korabya by Puṇṇaka the Ogre as he had won the game of dice) It is stated in the commentary on verse 197 of this particular Jātaka: Having valiantly thundered, "Of death I am not afraid," Vidhura resolved: "May my lower garment not go off against my wish." Reflecting on his Perfectons, he tightened his garment and followed Puṇṇaka by catching hold of the tail of his horse fearlessly with the dignity of a lion-king. This resolution made by Vidhura is Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna.

In the Naḷapāna Jātaka of the Sīla Vagga, Ekaka Nipāta, eighty thousand monkeys headed by their king, the Future Buddha, found it difficult to drink the water from a pond that was protected by a wild water-demon. The monkey king then took one of the reeds that grew around the pond, made an asseveration that the reed be rid of the joints and blew air into it. The reed became hollow throughout with no joints. He thereby made it possible for his followers to drink the water through the hollow reeds. But there were too many monkeys and the king was unable to provide each with a hollow reed. So he resolved: "Let all the reeds around the pond become hollow." This resolution made by the monkey king to fulfil his wish to let the monkeys drink the water individually is Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna.

In the Kukkura Jātaka of the Kuruṅga Vagga, Ekaka Nipāta, it is mentioned that leather straps of the chariot of King Brahmadatta of Bārāṇasī were gnawed by the dogs bred in the inner city. Under the wrong impression that the leather-eating dogs were owned by the citizens living in the outer city, royal servants chased to kill them. So the dogs dared not live in the city and gathered at a cemetery. Knowing the true reason of the trouble and realizing that the leather straps of the royal chariot could [ 317 ] have been eaten only by the dogs of the inner city, the leader of the pack, the Bodhisatta, asked them to wait while he went to the palace. While he entered the city, he concentrated his thoughts on Perfections, and diffusing his metta he resolved: "May nobody be able to hurl stones or sticks at me." This resolution, too, made to fulfil his wish that the dogs of the outer city might be safe from harm is Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna.

In the Mātaṅga Jātaka of the Vīsati Nipāta: During the reign of King Brahmadatta of Bārāṇasī, the Bodhisatta was born into a lowly caste of caṇḍala and named Mātaṅga. The daughter of a wealthy man of Bārāṇasī was named Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā because she believed in auspiciousness of pleasant sights. One day she went to a garden to amuse herself with her maids. On the way she saw Mātaṅga who came into the city. Though he kept himself aside as he was of a low birth, the sight of his person aroused displeasure in Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā, who therefore returned home thinking that it was not an auspicious day for her. Her followers were also annoyed. Saying, "Because of you, we will have no fun today," they beat him until he became unconscious; thereafter they departed. When Mātaṅga regained consciousness after a while he said to himself, "These people of Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā have tortured an innocent man like me." Then he went to the house of Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā's father and lay at the entrance with a resolution, "I will not get up until I win Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā's hand." This resolution of Mātaṅga made to humble Diṭṭha Maṅgalikā's pride is also Āsīsa Ādhiṭṭhāna.

In the Commentary on the Mahāvagga of the Vinaya, too, it is said thus: Just after his Enlightenment, the Buddha stayed for seven weeks at seven different places in the vicinity of the Bodhi tree spending a week at each place. At the end of the last seven day's stay at the foot of a rajayatana tree, the brothers Tapussa and Bhallika came to him and offered some cakes. The Buddha considered how to accept the offer of cakes. (The bowl offered by Brahma Ghatikāra disappeared the day the Buddha accepted the milkrice offered by Sujatā.) Then the four Deva Kings presented the Buddha with four emerald bowls. But the [ 318 ] Buddha refused to take them. The Deva Kings then offered the Buddha four stone bowls having the colour of kidneybeans. To strengthen their faith, the Buddha accepted the bowls and resolved, "May the bowls merge into one." Then the bowls became one with four concentric brims. This resolution of the Buddha also is Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna.

Difference between Adhiṭṭhāna and Sacca.

Its seems that Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna and Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna of this section on Ādhiṭṭhāṅa and Icchāpūraṇa Sacca of the section on Sacca are one and the same because all these are concerned with fulfilment of one's wish.

With regard to Icchāpūraṇa Sacca, when Suvaṇṇa Sāma's mother, father and Goddess Bahusundari made their respective resolutions they all wished the disappearance of the poison of the arrow that struck Suvaṇṇa Sāma; with regard to Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna, too, when the Bodhisatta made his resolution throwing up his cut-off hair to the sky, he had wished that the hair would hang in the sky if he would become a Buddha; with regard to Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna, too, when Vidhura made his resolution, his wish was to keep his dress intact. The connection of these resolutions with their respective wishes makes one think that they all are the same. That is why some people nowadays combine the two words, Sacca and Adhiṭṭhāna, into one, saying, "We perform Sacca-adhiṭṭhāna."

In reality, however, Sacca is one and Adhiṭṭāna another of the ten Perfections. Therefore they are two different things and their difference is this: as has been said before, sacca is truth whether it is of good or evil nature. A wish based on that truth is Icchāpūraṇa. But when one's wish is not based on some form of truth, the determination made of one's own accord to have one's wish fulfilled is Adhiṭṭhāna.

To explain further: In the Suvaṇṇa Sāma Jātaka when his parents made an asseveration, they said, "Sāma has formerly practised only righteousness" (which is the basic truth). And they added: "By this truthful saying, may his [ 319 ] poison vanish" (which is their wish). Thus expressing the wish based on what was true is Icchāpūraṇa Sacca.

When the Bodhisatta threw up his cut-off hair to the sky resolving, "If I should become a Buddha may the hair remain in the sky," he did so without any basis of truth. His truthfulness was made for portending signs which would let him know beforehand of his coming Buddhahood.

The resolution made by Vidhura when he was about to follow Puṇṇaka by holding on to the tail of his horse, "May my dress remain intact," is also Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna because it has no truth as a basis and is therefore a mere determination of his wish, Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna.

Thus the difference between Sacca and Adhiṭṭhāna lies in the presence or absence of the basis of truth.

These habits and practices include those of a bull (gosīla and govata): cattle eat and discharge faeces and urine while standing; in imitation of cattle some ascetics (during the lifetime of the Buddha) did the same, believing wrongly that by so doing they would be purified and liberated from saṃsāra. (That is not to say that cattle had that wrong view, but only those ascetics who imitated cattle had.) This practice (vata) is connected with evil.

But Adhiṭṭhāna has nothing to do with such wrong practices, for it belongs to the noble practice of Perfection. Here vata refers to observances of such noble practices as generosity, morality, etc., When one resolves to observe these Practices, such an action may be termed Vata Adhiṭṭhāna, but mere resolution and mere designation do not mean fulfilling the Perfection of Resolution. The reason is that Adhiṭṭhāna does not belong to the past nor does it belong to the present. One fulfils the Perfection of Resolution when one observes in the future exactly as one has resolved firmly now. However ardently one resolves at present, if one fails to observe later, one's resolution is useless and meaningless.

[ 320 ] This idea is expressed in the Kavilakkhaṇa Thatpon. A line in it reads to the effect that resolution should be compared to the horn of a rhinoceros, a beast wich has but one horn, not two. Just as a rhinoceros has only one horn so should one stick to his resolution steadfastly and firmly, but not waveringly. This line of the Kavilakkhana agrees with such saying as "yathā pi pabbato selo" as mentioned in the Buddhavaṃsa. Its meaning has been shown above.

The different resolutions as classified before such as Adhiṭṭhāna concerning Uposatha, Adhiṭṭhāna concerning the robe and Adhiṭṭhāna concerning the bowl, cannot be included under Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna, Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna and Vata Adhiṭṭhāna, for they are the resolutions made as required by the Vinaya rules. On the other hand, the Adhiṭṭhāna of one of the five Vasībhāvas and the Adhiṭṭhāna that precedes Nirodhasamāpatti and that belongs to the ten Iddhis are Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhānas.

The Future Buddhas and the Three kinds of Adhiṭṭhāna.

Of these three kinds of Adhiṭṭhāna the Future Buddhas practise Pubbanimitta Adhiṭṭhāna and Āsīsa Adhiṭṭhāna not for fulfilling the Perfection of Adhiṭṭhāna, but for meeting some requirements under certain circumstances. On the other hand it is this Vata Adhiṭṭhāna that they practised to fulfil the Perfection of Adhiṭṭhāna that leads to the attainment of the Arahatta Magga Ñāṇa and Sabbaññuta Ñāṇa.

In order to mention a little of the way they practise (this particular Adhiṭṭhāna), here is an extract from the Cariyā Pitaka:

Nisajja pāsādavare evaṃ cintes' ahem tadā
Yaṃ kiñ ci mānusaṃ dānaṃ adinnaṃ me na vijjati
Yo pi yāceyya maṃ cakkhuṃ dadeyyaṃ avikampito
Sāriputta, when I was King Sivi I thought to myself in the palace thus: "Of the kinds of dāna that people give, "there is nothing that I have not given. Should somebody ask for my eye, unshaken I will give it to him."

[ 321 ] By this, King Sivi meant to say that he had firmly resolved, "If someone comes to me today and begs for my eye, without hesitation I will offer it to him."

When Sakka in the guise of a Brahmin came to ask for one eye, true to his resolution, he gave away both eyes to him unhesitatingly. This resolution of King Sivi is with reference to Dāna.

In the Chapter on Bhuridatta's Practice, it is said:

Caturo aṅge adhiṭṭhāya semi vammikamuddhani
chaviyā cammena maṃsena nahāru aṭṭhikehi vā
yassa etena karaṇiyaṃ dinnaṃ yeva harātu so

This describes how the Nāga King Bhūridatta resolved when he observed the precepts. It means: "Having resolved with regard to four components of my body, namely, (1) skin thick and thin, (2) flesh and blood, (3) muscles and (4) bones I lay on the top of the anthill. He who has some use for any of these four components, let him take it, for I have already made a charity of them." Wishing to promote his observance of the precepts, King Bhūridatta resolved, "I will guard my morality at the sacrifice of the four components of my body". This resolution of King Būridatta is in connection with Sīla.

In the Campeyya Jātaka of the Vīsati Nipāta, too, the Nāga King Campeyya went to observe the precepts after telling his queen of the signs that would show when he was in danger in the aforesaid manner; it is mentioned in the Commentary: "Nimittāni ācikkhitvā cātuddasī uposathaṃ adhiṭṭhāya nāgabhavanā nikkhamitvā tattha gantvā vammikamatthake nipajji", "Having told of signalling signs and having resolved to observe the precept on the fourteenth day of the new moon, Campeyya left the abode of Nāgas for the human world and lay on the top of an ant-hill." This resolution of Campeyya was purely for observing Sīla.

In all these stories, Dāna or Sīla is one thing and Adhiṭṭhāna is another thing. King Sivi's Dāna occurred the moment he gave his eyes, but his resolution took [ 322 ] place when he resolved to do so before the actual giving. Therefore the resolution came first and it was followed by the act of giving. In the case of Sīla observed by the Nāga Kings, too, the resolution was first and then came the act of observance of Sīla. In the secular affairs, too, it is natural to do things only after making up one's mind "I will do like this."

Prince Temiya's Adhiṭṭhāna.

The Future Buddha was once son of King of Kāsi and named Temiya. (He was so named by his father because on the day he was born it rained heavily in the whole country of Kāsi and people became wet and happy.) When the prince was one month old, while he was in the lap of his father, four thieves were brought to the king, who ordered them to be punished. The prince was shocked to see this and became sad, thinking: "What shall I do to escape from this palace."

The next day while he was staying alone under the white parasol, he reflected on his father's action and was scared to become king. To him who was pale like a lotus flower crushed by hand the guardian goddess of the parasol, his mother in one of his previous births, said: "Do not worry, son. If you want to escape from this royal residence, resolve to pretend to be dumb, deaf and mute. Your wish will be fulfilled." Then the prince made a resolution and acted accordingly.

For sixteen years the prince was tested by various means, but he remained firm without deviating from his resolution. Then the father ordered, "My son was really dumb, deaf and mute. Take him to the cemetery and bury him there."

Although he was variously tested and presented with difficulties for sixteen long years, he remained resolute like the example of a rocky mountain mentioned in the Buddhavaṃsa. His firm, unshaken determination is an act of tremendous resoluteness. Only when one fulfils one's Vata resolution with the kind of determination of Prince [ 323 ] Temiya with all might and valour and without wavering will one be carrying out the fulfilment of the Perfection of Resolution as observed by Bodhisattas.

Here ends the Section on Adhiṭṭhāna Pāramī.

(i) Perfection of Loving-kindness.

(Mettā-Pāramī)
Three kinds of pema.

Teachers of old have translated the word mettā of mettā pāraṃi into Myanmar (love). Similarly, they translate pema also as love. 'Love' meant by mettā is a specialised term while 'love' meant by pema is a general one. Therefore pema is divided into three:

(l) taṇhā pema,
(2) gehasita pema, and
(3) mettā pema.

Of there three:

(1) Tanhā pema is love between men and women and is generated by craving, greed; this love is called siṅgāra in books on rhetorics.

(2) Gehasita pema is attachment between parents and children, among brothers and sisters, and is based on living together in the same house. This kind of love is called vacchala in rhetorics.

Both taṇhā pema and gehasita pema are not wholesome, the former is passion (taṇhā rāga) while the latter greed (lobha).

(3) Mettā pema is loving-kindness or unbounded benevolence shown towards others for their well-being. This love is entirely free from attachment or desire to [ 324 ] live always together with others. People may be living poles apart and yet one is happy to hear that those living far away are prosperous. Such separation does not prevent one from feeling satisfied with their well-being. Therefore metta is pure and noble and has been called also Brahmavihāra (Sublime Abode). That is to say, developing such love is living in a sublime state of mind. Not only mettā, but karunā (compassion), muditā (altruistic joy) and upekkhā (equanimity) are also Brahmavihāra.

So Brahmavihāra comprises all these four virtues. They are also known as four Brahmacariya (Noble Practices). (Another name for Brahmavihāra is Appamaññā, Illimitables, for they are the mental qualities to be developed and extended towards all beings whose number is limitless.)

It should be carefully noted that development of loving-kindness is not development of impure taṇhā pema and gehasita pema, but that of pure and noble mettā pema. How to develop metta will be shown later.

Mettā and adosa.

Mettā is a reality which exists in its ultimate sense (Paramattha). But when ultimate realities are enumerated mettā is not shown as a separate item, for it is covered by the term adosa cetasika (mental concomitant of hatelessness) which has wide connotation. Mettā forms a part of that mental concomitant of adosa.

To explain further: According to the Abhidhamattha Saṅgaha, adosa cetasika is associated with 59 sobhaṇa citta. Whenever these 59 citta arise there arises adosa cetasika, too. Adosa can contemplate various objects, but mettā can have only living beings as its object. In performing different acts of Dāna or observing various kinds of Sīla there invariably arises adosa. But each time adosa arises in this way, it is not necessarily mettā. Only when one contemplates living beings with the thought "may they be well and happy", wishing their prosperity, can adosa cetasika be called mettā.

[ 325 ] With reference to the aforesaid Khantī Pāramī (Perfection of Forbearance), too, khantī may mean adosa cetasika, but not all adosa cetasikas are khantī; when one is wronged by others one restrains oneself from showing dosa (hate or anger) to them, and it has been discussed that only such adosa should be taken as khantī. Similarly, not all adosa should be taken as mettā, but only that adosa that arises in the form of goodwill towards other beings should be.

528 kinds of mettā.

With reference to mettā, people say that mettā is of 528 kinds. But in reality it is not so. It should be noted people say so because according to the Paṭisambhidāmagga there are 528 ways of developing mettā.

Of the 528 ways, five are anodhisa, without specifications of beings. They are:

(1) sabbe sattā (all beings),
(2) sabbe pāṇā (all living things),
(3) sabbe bhūtā (all existing creatures),
(4) sabbe puggalā (all persons or individuals), and
(5) sabbe attabhāvapariyāpannā (all those who have come to individual existences.)

When one directs one's thought to all beings that exist in the 31 planes of existence in any one of these five ways, they all are embraced without any one of them being left out. Since there is none who is not covered by these five ways, these five are called five anodhisas. (Or also called five anodhisa individuals.) Odhi of anodhisa means 'boundary', 'limit'. Hence anodhisa is 'having no limit.'

(The next paragraph on the usage of 'satta' and 'puggala' deals only with the meaning of those words in Myanmar; it is therefore left out from our translation.) When mettā is directed towards beings who are specified, the classification is as follows:

[ 326 ] (1) sabbā itthiyo (all females)
(2) sabbe purisā (all males)
(3) sabbe ariyā (all noble peasons, ariyas)
(4) sabbe anariyā (all ignoble persons, those who have not yet attained the state of ariyas)
(5) sabbe devā (all Devas),
(6) sabbe manussā (all humans), and
(7) sabbe vinipātikā (petas belonging to miserable states).

Each of these seven belongs to a separate category of beings and they are accordingly called odhisa (or seven odhisa beings).

In this way there are twelve kinds of beings, five anodhisa (unspecified) and seven odhisa (specified), to whom mettā should be directed.

How mettā is directed to these twelve catgories of beings is taught as follows:

(1) averā hontu (may they be free from enmity),
(2) abyāpajjā hontu (may they be free from ill will.)
(3) anighā hontu (may they be free from unhappiness) and
(4) sukhi attānaṃ pariharantu (may they be able to keep themselves happy).

When mettā is suffused in these four ways on each of the above twelve categories of persons, the modes of suffusing mettā become 48 in number. There is no mention of directions in these 48 modes.

When the four cardinal points, the four subordinate points and the upward and downward directions are mentioned in each of these 48 modes, there will be 480 modes all together: ("May those beings in the east be free from enmity, be free from ill-will, be free from suffering and [ 327 ] may they be able to keep themselves happy." In this way beings in other directions also should be suffused with mettā thus the number of modes of suffusing mettā become 480.)

If 48 modes of suffusing without mention of directions are added to those 480 modes, the total becomes 528.

These 528 modes of suffusing mettā are named briefly "suffusion of mettā" by teachers of old and composed as a traditional prayer. If one desires to suffuse mettā in the first way in Pāḷi one should do so by reciting "sabbe sattā averā hontu" (May all beings be free from enmity.' Repeating in this way continuously means development of mettā. If one desires to do so in the second way in Pāḷi one should recite "Sabbe sattā abyāpajjā hontu" (May all beings be free from ill-will). Repeating in this way continuously also means development of mettā. (In this manner all the 528 ways of suffusing mettā should be understood.)

The development of mettā in these 528 ways as shown above is taught in the Paṭisambhidāmagga and well-known. In that Text there is no mention of development of karuṇā, muditā and upekkhā at the end of that of mettā.) But nowadays suffusion of mettā as published in some books contains at the end of development of mettā (a) dukkhā muccantu, may they be free from suffering, which is development of karuṇā (b) yathā laddha sampattito māvigacchantu 'may they not suffer loss of what they have gained', which is development of muditā, and (c) kammassakā, 'they have their deeds, kamma, as their own property; each being is what his or her kamma makes', which is development of upekkhā. They are included by ancient teachers so that those who wish to develop karunā, muditā and upekkhā may do so by taking development of mettā as a guide.

Therefore if one desires to develop karunā one should incline one's thought towards living beings like this: Sabbe sattā dukkhā muccantu, 'May all beings be free from suffering; if one desires to develop muditā: Sabbe sattā yathā laddha sampattito māvigacchantu,' May all beings not suffer [ 328 ] loss of what they have gained'; if one desires to develop upekkhā: Sabbe sattā kammassakā, 'All beings have their deeds, kamma, as their own property.'

But this does not mean that only this way as mentioned in the scriptures should be adopted but not others. Because for convering all beings without any classification, there are not only terms like satta, pāṇa, bhūta, puggala and attabhāvapariyāpannā, but there are such words as sarīrī, dehī, jīva, pajā, jantu, hindagu, etc., To suffuse beings with the thought Sabbe sarīrī averā hontu, 'May all those having bodies be free from enmity', etc., is also to direct mettā towards them.

The number of ways to direct metta is also given as four in the Paṭisambhidāmagga. But there are other ways as well, for instance, Sabbe sattā sukhino hontu, 'May all beings be happy: Sabbe sattā khemino hontu, 'May all beings be secure', and such thoughts are also mettā. The fact that suffusing beings with one's mettā by using other Pāḷi words and by adopting other ways also constitutes development of real mettā is evidenced by the Metta Sutta.

Development of mettā according to the Metta Sutta.

The Metta Sutta was delivered by the Buddha in connection with forest-dwelling bhikkhus and was recited at the Councils and preserved in the Sutta Nipāta and the Khuddaka Pāṭha. The Sutta first describes fifteen virtues which those desirous of developing mettā should be endowed with. These fifteen are known in Pāḷi as fifteen Mettāpubbabhāga, i.e. virtues to be endowed with before developing mettā.

The Sutta says:

He who is clever in what is noble and profitable and who desires to abide contemplating Nibbāna through his wisdom--Nibbāna which is peaceful and blissful-should endeavour to be endowed with the following:

[ 329 ] (1) ability to execute what is good.
(2) uprightness in conduct.
(3) total straightforwardness,
(4) being receptive to the words of the wise,
(5) gentleness in manners,
(6) having no conceit,
(7) being easily contented with what one has,
(8) being easy to support,
(9) not being burdened by unnecessary cares and duties,
(10) frugal living (i.e. not being saddled with too many personal belongings for one's travel; a bhikkhu should travel light only with his eight requisites just as a bird flies taking with it only its wings),
(11) having calm and serene sense-faculties,
(12) mature wisdom with regard to faultless things.
(13) modesty in one's deeds, words and thoughts.
(14) having no attachment to one's supporters male or female, (which is particularly concerned with bhikkhus as the Sutta is originally meant for them. Lay people also should not have attachment to friends),
(15) not doing even the slightest deed that would be reproved by the wise.

The Sutta explains how to develop mettā after becoming endowed with these fifteen virtues saying, "Sukhino vā khemino hontu, sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā" etc.

How to develop mettā as taught in the Metta Sutta should be briefly noted as follows:

(a) Sabbasaṅgāhika mettā, 'Metta developed in an all inclusive manner covering all beings,'
(b) Dukabhāvanā mettā, 'Metta developed by dividing beings into two groups', and
(c) Tikabhāvanā mettā, 'Metta developed by dividing beings into three groups.'

[ 330 ] (a) Sabbasaṅgāhika mettā.

Of these three ways of development of mettā, that of Sabbasaṅgāhika mettā is explained in Pāḷi as suffusing thus: "Sukhino vā khemino hontu, sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā," If one wishes to develop mettā according to this explanation one should keep reciting and contemplating as follows:

(1) Sabbe sattā sukino hontu, 'May all beings be happy physically',
(2) Sabbe sattā khemino hontu, 'May all beings be free from dangers',
(3) Sabbe sattā sukhitattā hontu, 'May all beings be happy mentally'.
This is the development of Sabbasaṅgāhika mettā as taught in the Metta Sutta.

(b) Dukabhāvanā mettā.

Dukabhāvanā mettā and Tikabhāvanā mettā are both likely to be confusing to those who do not know how to interpret the Pāḷi text. (How one may get confused will not be explained lest it should cause more complications.) The Dukabhāvanā metta is developed as follows:

There are four pairs of beings, namely,

(1) Tasa thāvara duka-the pair of frightened and unfrightened beings,
(2) Diṭṭhādiṭṭha duka-the pair of seen and unseen beings,"
(3) Dūra santika duka-the pair of far and near beings, and
(4) Bhūta sambhavesi duka-the pair of Arahants and worldlings together with learners.

(1) Tasā vā thāvarā vā anavasesā sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all those worldlings and noble learners who are frightened and may those Arahants who are [ 331 ] unfrightened, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Tasa thāvara duka bhāvanā mettā.

(2) Diṭṭhā vā adiṭṭhā vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all those beings seen and unseen, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Diṭṭhādiṭṭha duka mettā,

(3) Dūrā vā avidūrā vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all these beings living afar and living near, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating is development of Dura santika dukabhāvanā metta.

(4) Bhutā vā sambhavesī vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all these beings, who are Arahants, and those who are worldlings and learners, (or those who have been born and those who are still in the womb of their mothers), without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Bhūta sambhavesi dukabhāvanā mettā.

The above-mentioned four ways of development of mettā is called dukabhāvanā metta, i.e., Mettā developed after dividing beings into two groups.

(c) Tikabhāvanā mettā.

This Tikabhāvanā mettā is of three kinds:

(1) Dīgha rassa majjhima tika-the set of three of tall, short and medium beings,
(2) Mahantāṇuka majjhima tika-the set of three of large, small and medium beings.
(3) Thūlāṇuka majjhima tika-the set of three of fat, thin and medium beings.

(1) Dighā vā rassā vā majjhimā vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all those beings having [ 332 ] long bodies, those having short bodies and those having bodies of medium length, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Dīgha rassa majjhima tikabhāvanā mettā.

(2) Mahantā vā aṇukā vā majjhimā vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all those beings having big bodies, those having small bodies and those having bodies of medium size, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Mahantāṇuka majjhima tikabhāvanā mettā.

(3) Thūlā vā aṇukā vā majjhimā vā anavasesā sabbasattā bhavantu sukhitattā, 'May all those beings having fat bodies, those having thin bodies and those having bodies of medium build, without exception, be happy both physically and mentally.' Contemplating thus is development of Thūlāṇuka majjhima tikabhāvanā mettā.

The above-mentioned three ways of development of mettā is called Tika bhāvanā mettā, i.e., Metta developed after dividing beings into three groups.

Since these three ways of development of mettā, namely, (a) Sabbasaṅgāhika mettā, (b) Dukabhāvana mettā and (c) Tikabhāvanā mettā are thoughts of loving-kindness, developed with the desire to see others attain prosperity and happiness. they are called Hitasukhāgamapatthanā mettā.

Similarly, thoughts of loving-kindness developed with the desire to see others free from misfortune and not suffering are called Ahitadukkhānāgamapatthanā mettā.

This kind of metta is described in Pali:

Na paro param nikubbetha,
Nā' timaññetha katthaci naṃ kañci.
Vyārosanā paṭighasaññā,
Nāññamaññassa dukkham iccheyya.

[ 333 ] The meaning is: 'May not one being deceive another; may not one despise another; may they not wish to cause suffering to one another by offending and hurting physically, verbally and mentally." Contemplating thus is development of Ahitadukkhānāgamapatthanā mettā.

It may be asked: "Why development of mettā is described not in one way only but in several different ways in the Paṭisambhidāmagga and the Metta Sutta?"

The answer is: The mind of a worldling roams about continuously from one sense-object to another. The mind in such a state cannot be kept steady on the object of mettā by adopting one means only. Steady concentration of the mind can be achieved by repeated change of method of contemplation. Therefore a variety of ways of developing mettā was taught by the Buddha. Sages of later times, too, were obliged to explain these different ways. (Or alternative explanation:) Those who develop mettā are of different basic aptitudes; for some anodhisa mettā method is more comprehensible; for some odhisa mettā method is more intelligible; for some mode of suffusing beings in different directions with mettā is more lucid; for some Sabbasaṅgāhika means of the Metta Sutta is clearer; for some Dukabhāvanā is more suitable; still for some Tikabhāvanā means is more appropriate. Since the different basic aptitudes of those who develop mettā require adoption of diverse means suitable for each individual the Buddha had to teach these different method and later teachers had to explain them fully.

The Bodhisatta's mettā.

How the Bodhisatta had developed mettā (how he had fulfilled the Perfection of Loving-kindness) has been explained in the Suvaṇṇasāma Jātaka told in the Cariyā Piṭaka and the Mahā Nipāta (of the Jātaka). The story as told in the Cariyā Piṭaka in brief is as follows: "Dear Sāriputta, when I was Suvaṇṇasāma, living in the residence made ready by Sakka, I directed loving-kindness towards lions and tigers in the forest. I lived there being surrounded by lions and tigers, by leopards, wolves, buffaloes, [ 334 ] spotted deer and bears. None of these animals was frightened by me: nor am I frightened any of them. I was happy living in the forest as I was fortified with the powers of mettā."

From this passage we know nothing of Suvaṇṇasāma's family, birth, etc.; we know from it only of his noble and happy living without a trace of fear for the beasts in the forest, sustained by the virtues of his loving-kindness.

In the Mahā Nipāta, however, it is said that when the Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma was struck by an arrow, he asked: "Why did you shoot me with the arrow?" and King Pīḷiyakkha replied: "While I was aiming at a deer, the deer that had come nearer to the point of the arrow fled, being frightened by you. So I was annoyed and shot you," Then Suvaṇṇasāma replied: "Na maṃ migā uttasanti, araññe sāpadānipi" "Seeing me, deer are not frightened; nor are the other beasts of the forest." He also said:

O King, even kinnaras who with a very timid nature are living in the mountain of Gandhamādana, would joyfully come to me while they are roaming in the hills and forests.

From this Pāḷi verse it is known that the Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma, living in the forest, directed mettā towards all forest-dwelling animals including kinnaras and that he was accordingly loved by each and very animal in the forest.

In the list of eleven advantages that accrue by developing mettā, one is: being loved by humans, Devas, demons and ghosts. But from the Suvaṇṇasāma story we know that animals too love one who develops mettā. (The eleven advantages of developing mettā have been shown in connection with the Navaṅga Uposatha in the Section on the Perfection of Morality). Of these eleven advantages, in connection with amanussānaṃ piyo, 'love of Deva, demons and ghosts', the story of Visākha Thera is cited in the Brahmivihāra Niddesa of the Visuddhimagga.

The story of Visākha Thera

[ 335 ] Visākha, a householder of Pāṭaliputta, having heard about Ceylon, was desirous of going to that country to devote himself to practice of Dhamma. After leaving his wealth to his family, he crossed over to Ceylon and became a monk at the Mahāvihāra. For five months he studied Dve Mātikā (the two books of concise Vinaya) and left the Mahāvihāra for a group of monastries which were suitable places for meditation. He spent four months at each monastry.

On his way to the hill-monastery called Cittala, Visākha came to a junction of two roads and while he was thinking which road to follow, the Deva of the hill guided him to the right direction. Accordingly he arrived at the monastery and stayed for four months there. After planning to go to another monastery the following day, he went to sleep. While he was thus sleeping, the spirit of an emerald green tree sat on a wooden plank at the edge of a staircase and wept. "Who is weeping here?" asked the monk. I am the spirit of the emerald green tree, Sir," was the reply. "Why are you weeping?" "Because you are about to leave." "What advantage is there to you of my stay here?" "Your stay here makes the local Devas, demons and others show loving-kindness to one another. (Love prevails among them.) After your leaving, they will quarrel among themselves even using harsh words."

If my stay here really helps you live happily as you have told, said the monk, "well, I will stay on for another four months." When the four months had lapsed, the monk was about to leave and the spirit wept again. In this way, the monk could not leave the place at all and passed into Nibbāna at the same monastery of Cittala.

The story shows that those who receive mettā not only love him who directs mettā to them, but they show goodwill to one another under the influence of his mettā.

[ 336 ] Loving-kindness of a hunter.

In the Mahā Haṃsa Jātaka of the Asīti Nipāta, when the Bodhisatta, King of Haṃsas, was caught in a snare, he suffered much from injury. At the instance of the Haṃsa General, the repentant hunter picked up the Haṃsa King tenderly and nursed him with loving-kindness to relieve his pain. Even the weals raised by the snare did not remain on his feet, which became normal with the veins, flesh and skin undamaged because of the power of the hunter's mettā.

This is but a pertinent extract from the Mahā Haṃsa Jātaka. The story in full may be learnt from the same Jātaka. Similar stories are told in the Paṭhama Cūḷa Haṃa Jātaka of the Asīti Nipāta, the Rohaṇa Miga Jātaka and the Cūḷa Haṃsa Jātaka of the Vīsati Nipāta. The power of mettā may be well understood from these stories.

Passion in the guise of loving-kindness.

He who wants to direct his mettā towards beings should be careful about one thing and this is not to have developed passion (rāga) in the guise of mettā as it is warned in the Netti Commentary: "Rāgo mettāyanāmukhena vañceti." "Passion in the guise of loving-kindness is deceiving." In the Brahmavihāra Niddesa of the Visuddhimagga, too, it is stated: "Extinction of anger means fulfilment of mettā, but arising of passion means destruction of mettā."

The meaning is: When a man directs his mettā towards another whom he has shown anger, the anger disappears and there appears in him mettā which is goodwill. Therefore disappearance of anger leads to appearance of mettā. If passionate attachment appears in him while he is thus developing genuine mettā his genuine mettā fails. He has now been deceived by passion which assumes the semblance of loving-kindness.

As mettā is one of the ten perfections, it should be directed towards other beings until they return their good [ 337 ] will. Therefore disappearance of anger leads to appearance of mettā. If passionate attachment appears in him while he is thus developing genuine mettā his genuine mettā fails. He has now been deceived by passion which assumes the semblance of loving-kindness.

As mettā is one of the ten perfections, it should be directed towards other beings until they return their goodwill to oneself as par example the Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma and others. Not only is mettā included in the ten Perfections, but included in the forty methods of Samatha meditation, which leads to attainment of Jhāna and Abhiññaṇas. Therefore Bodhisattas and virtuous men of ancient times developed mettā and with sharp and intense concentration attained Jhānas and Abhiññāṇas (which are called Appanā in Pāḷi). To give illustrations of such an attainment while fulfilling the Perfections, the Seyya Jātaka, Abbhantara Vagga of the Tika Nipāta, and the Ekarāja Jātaka, Kāliṅga Vagga of the Catukka Nipāta, may be cited.

Seyya Jātaka.

A synopsis of the Seyya Jātaka: King Brahmadatta of Bārāṇasī ruled righteously fulfilling his ten kingly duties. He gave alms, kept the five precepts, observed Uposatha morality. Then a minister who had committed a crime in the palace was expelled by the king from the kingdom. He went to the neighbouring country of Kosala and while serving the king there urged him to attack and conquer Bārāṇasī which, he said, could easily be done. King Kosala followed his suggestion, arrested and imprisoned King Brahmadatta, who put up no resistance at all, with his ministers.

In the prison, Brahmadatta directed his mettā towards Kosala, who had robbed him of his kingdom, and in due course attained mettājhāna. Because of the power of that mettā the robber King Kosala felt burning sensations throughout his whole body as if it were burnt with torches. Suffering from particularly severe pain, he asked his ministers: "Why has this happened to me?" They replied: "O King, you suffer thus because you have imprisoned [ 338 ] King Brahmadatta who is endowed with morality." Thereupon Kosala hurried to the Bodhisatta Brahmadatta, begged for forgiveness and gave back his kingdom, to Brahmadatta saying: "Let your country be yours again." From this story it is clear that mettā is conducive to attainment of Jhāna.

Ekarāja Jātaka.

The story of Ekarāja: Once upon a time, a minister serving King Brahmadatta of Bārānasī committed an offence. The story thus begins with the same incident as that in the previous Seyya Jātaka. Both the Seyya Jātaka and the Ekarāja Jātaka runs like the Mahā Sīlava Jātaka of the Ekaka Nipāta. For the full story see the Mahā Sīlava Jātaka.

What is peculiar to the Ekarāja Jātaka is this: while King of Bārānasī was sitting in great state with his ministers in the courtyard, King Dubbhisena of Kosala had him tied and caged and then hung upside down above a doorstep in the palace. Having developed mettā with the robber king as the object of his contemplation, Brahmadatta attained Jhānas and Abhiññāṇas. He managed to release himself from bondage and sat crosslegged in the sky. Dubbhisena's body became burning hot and the heat was so intense that he rolled from side to side on the ground, grumbling: "It's so hot; it's so hot." Then he asked his ministers: "Why has this happened to me?" The ministers replied: "O King, you suffer very painfully like this because you have wrongly arrested and suspended upside-down the virtuous and innocent king." "In that case, go and quickly release him." Under this order royal servants promptly went where the king was only to see him sitting crosslegged in the sky. So they turned back and reported the matter to King Dubbhisena.

The Buddha's mettā.

Once while members of the Saṃgha headed by the Buddha were travelling to Kusināra, Malla princes made an agreement among themselves that any one of them whom did not extend his welcome to the congregation would be punished. Accordingly, a Malla prince, Roja by name, who was a friend of Ananda's while he was a lay [ 339 ] man, extended his welcome with other Malla princes to the congregation. Thereupon Ānanda said admiringly to Roja that it was a great opportunity to do so as the congregation was under the Buddha's headship. Roja replied that he did so not because he had faith in the Triple Gem but because of the agreement made among themselves. Finding Roja's reply unpleasant Ānanda approached the Buddha and told him of it. He also requested the Buddha to make Roja's mind more pliant. The Buddha then directed his thoughts of mettā exclusively to Roja who could not remain still at his residence and like a calf which has been separated from its mother came to the monastery where the Buddha was staying. With genuine faith in the Buddha arising in him, he paid homage to the Buddha and listened to his sermon, as a result of which he became a Sotapanna.

At another time, too, when members of the Saṃgha with the Buddha at its head entered the city of Rājagaha and went on alms-round, Devadatta, after consulting King Ajātasattu, sent Nāḷāgīri the Elephant, who was in must, to attack the Buddha. The Buddha overcame the elephant by suffusing him with mettā. Then the citizens of Rājagaha recited with joy the following verse:

Daṇḍen'eke damayanti aṅkusehi kasāhi ca
adaṇḍena asatthena nāgo danto mahesinā.

Some cattle-trainers, elephant-trainers and horsetrainers tame (their respective animals) by beating or hurting them with a goad or a whip.

However the mad elephant Nāḷāgīri has been tamed by the Buddha without any stick or any weapon.

Here ends the Section on the Perfection of Loving-kindness.

[ 340 ] (j) The Perfection of Equanimity.

(Upekkhā Pāramī).

Meaning of upekkhā.

A literal translation of the Pāḷi word upekkhā would be 'taking up a balanced view' which means maintenance of a neutral position between the two extremes of sorrow and happiness. Traditional Myanmar scholars rendered it as 'indifference'.

If the meaning of this rendering is not well thought of one is liable to misinterpret it as 'being inattentive', 'being negligent'. But upekkhā is not remaining inattentive or negligent. Upekkhā pays attention to objects but only in a balanced manner with the feeling of neutrality when encountering objects of sorrow or objects of happiness.

Development of upekkhā.

Development of upekkhā is the same as that of mettā mentioned in the Paṭisambhidāmagga. As mentioned above, the methods to be adopted in developing mettā are 528 because there are four basic modes. On the other hand, in developing upekkhā there is only one mode which is kammassakā meaning "all beings have deeds, kamma (done by them) as their own property." Therefore the methods in this case form one fourth of 528 which is 132.

As in developing mettā there are twelve categories of beings: five anodhisa (unspecified) and seven odhisa (specified). Since there is just one mode of it, we have twelve methods only that are to be adopted before applying them to the ten directions:

(1) sabbe sattā kammassakā (all beings have kamma as their own property);
(2) sabbe paṇā kammassakā (all living things have kamma as their own property);
(3) sabbe bhūtā kammassakā (all existing creatures have kamma as their own property);
[ 341 ] (4) sabbe puggalā kammassakā (all persons or individuals have kamma as their own property);
(5) sabbe attabhāvapariyāpannā kammassakā (all those who have come to individual existences have kamma as their own property);
(6) sabbā itthiyo kammassakā (all women have kamma as their own property);
(7) sabbe purisā kammassakā (all men have kamma as their own property);
(8) sabbe ariyā kammassakā (all noble ones have kamma as their own property);
(9) sabbe anariyā kammassakā (all persons who have not yet attained the state of ariyās have kamma as their own property);
(10) sabbe devā kammassakā (all Devas have kamma as their own property);
(11) sabbe manussā kammassakā (all humans have kamma as their own property); and
(12) sabbe vinipātikā kammassakā (all petas belonging to miserable states have kamma as their own property).

When these twelve are applied to the ten directions the result is 120. To these are added twelve methods which have no reference to any direction and the total number of methods becomes 132. Any suitable one of these methods may be used in developing Upekkhā but it should not be taken that the other methods are inapplicable.

To make it clearer: As in the case of mettā, one may develop upekkhā by using other terms for beings and persons if one so desires. The word kammassakā may also be replaced by other Pāḷi terms of the same meaning, which are mentioned in the Abhiṇha Sutta, Nīvaraṇa Vagga, Pañcaka Nipāta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. There it is said: sabbe sattā kammassakā, kammadāyādā, kammayonī, kammabandhū, kammapaṭissaraṇā.

[ 342 ] (1) kammassakā, 'having kamma as one's property,
(2) kammadāyādā, 'having kamma as one's heritage',
(3) kammayonī, 'having kamma as one's origin';
(4) kammabandhū, 'having kamma as one's own friend';
(5) kammapaṭissaraṇā, 'having kamma as one's refuge'.

Since all these five Pāḷi terms have one and the same significance, one may develop upekkhā by substituting 'sabbe sattā kammassakā' with any of the following four expressions that pleases one or that is understood well by one.

sabbe sattā kammadāyādā,
sabbe sattā kammayonī,
sabbe sattā kammabandhū,
sabbe sattā kammapaṭissaraṇā.

A Point to consider.

In this connection, a point to consider is this: It is clear that Mettā is a Perfection to be fulfilled for the welfare of beings and thus deserves to be considered as a noble Perfection. On the other hand, though Upekkhā is a Perfection to be fulfilled, it is a mental disposition which holds that "happiness or suffering is one's lot in life; if one is possessed of good deeds for happiness, one will be happy; if one is possessed of bad deeds for suffering, one will suffer. I can do nothing to alter the kamma of others." Is it not difficult to call such an attitude noble? Will it be wrong if one says that upekkhā is an attitude of mind which does not care for the welfare of beings and which remains apathetic towards them? It is therefore necessary to consider why upekkhā is ranked as an exalted virtue of Perfection.

In both secular and spiritual matters, it is natural that something which is difficult to get is of great value and something which is easy to get is of little value. It is therefore a common knowledge that in the world easily [ 343 ] available materials such as pebbles and sand are cheap; and gold, silver, rubies and other gems which are hard to come by are precious.

Similarly in spiritual matters, greed, hate and other unwholesome mental states are likely to arise easily; accordingly they are of little worth. It requires no special exertion to let them arise. As a matter of fact, what is difficult is to prevent them from arising in an uncontrollable manner. They are indeed like useless weeds. On the other hand, Dāna, Sīla and other wholesome deeds cannot happen without putting forth necessary efforts; they do not take place automatically. One of such meritorious deeds is development of genuine mettā which is superior to Dāna and Sīla. This genuine loving-kindness is indeed difficult to be developed.

There are three types of persons: verī-puggala, majjhatta-puggala and piya-puggala: a foe, neither a foe nor a friend, and a friend respectively. It is difficult to develop mettā directed towards a verī-puggala, not so difficult towards a majjhatta-puggala; on the contrary, it is easy to direct mettā towards a piya-puggala. Mettā that has as its object neither a verī nor a majjhatta but only a piya-puggala is mettā of no value, no matter how often it is developed, because it is just a performance of an easy task.

If one desires to fulfil Mettā Pāramī properly, one should develop mettā directed towards oneself first. Since such a development is in one's own interest, mettā arises easily and fully without fail. This mettā which is complete as it is developed for one's own self should serve as an example. Hence mettā should be directed towards oneself first.

When mettā is directed towards a verī, a majjhatta and a piya, one should do so all alike without any discrimination, the way one has done towards oneself. Could it be easily done? No, it could not be. Indeed it is difficult to develop mettā even towards a friend the way one does towards oneself, let alone towards a foe or a neutral person, as has been instructed by the Buddha, [ 344 ] attasamaṃ pemaṃ n'atthi, there is no person like oneself that one loves. Only when mettā which is so difficult to develop towards a friend can be develolped not only towards a friend but also towards the other two persons on a par with oneself and without the slightest difference, can it become genuine mettā of Pāramī stature.

This suggests how difficult it is to develop genuine mettā and how great its value is. On account of the development of this form of mettā, as has been stated above, Suvaṇṇa Sāma was loved by wild beasts like tigers, lions, etc., lt is even more difficult to develop upekkhā as a fulfilment of Perfection than to develop mettā for the same purpose.

It is not easy to develop upekkhā even towards a neutral person of the three types. People would say: "I remain equanimous with regard to him now" or "In this matter I adopt the attitude of kammassakā," and so on. As such a saying signifies unconcern and disinterest, upekkhā appears to be of little importance. In reality upekkhā presupposes paying attention to and taking interest in the object of contemplation (but as a neutral observer).

As it is easy to develop mettā towards a friend so it is easy to develop upekkhā towards a neutral person. Because one does not love or hate him, it is easy to keep one's attitude towards him balanced without any desire to see him happy or to see him suffer. But it is more difficult to develop upekkhā towards a foe. Because one hates him one rejoices easily when he declines and one envies him when he prospers. It is hard to prevent both mental states from arising; when either of them sets in even in the slightest manner one fails to maintain upekkhā.

It is still more difficult to develop upekkhā towards a friend than towards a foe. Because one is already attached to a friend one is delighted when he prospers or distressed when misfortune befalls him. It is difficult to prevent both delight and distress from arising in oneself.

[ 345 ] Only when one maintains equanimity with the same attitude towards all three types or persons as towards oneself without any of the above-mentioned difficulties can development of upekkhā be possible. As long as there is partiality in one's attitude towards these three types of persons upekkhā is far from successful.

As has been said, development of upekkhā is not an attitude of unconcern or neglect; on the contrary, it does pay attention to and takes interest (in the object of contemplation). In doing so, one says to oneself: "Nothing can be done to make beings including myself happy or unhappy. Those who are possessed of good kamma will be happy and those who are possessed of bad kamma will be unhappy. Since their happiness and unhappiness are related to their past deeds nothing could be done about them." Only profound reflection in this vivid manner with living beings as objects of contemplation constitutes genuine upekkhā. Since it involves neither anxiety nor uneasiness, it is noble, serene and calm. The more it goes beyond mettā, the higher its spiritual standard is.

Like mettā, upekkhā is one of the forty subjects of samatha meditation and one of the ten Perfections. One who desires to meditate on upekkhā according to samatha method does so only for the highest Jhāna and not for the lower ones. Those who are slow to grasp, reach the highest stage of Jhāna only by acquiring them five times. For them the Buddha has taught fivefold Jhāna which is called pañcaka method (method of five). The Jhāna acquired for the first time by them is the First Jhāna, that acquired for the second time is the Second Jhāna and so on up to the Fifth Jhāna. In this way there are five Jhānas for the dull.

The intelligent, however, reached the highest Jhāna after acquiring them four times. For them the Buddha has taught fourfold Jhāna which is known as catukka method (method of four). The Jhāna acquiring for the first time is the First Jhāna, and so on. In this way there are four Jhānas for the intelligent.

[ 346 ] Those who have not attained any Jhāna in either of these two ways should not try to meditate yet on upekkhā for the highest stage of Jhāna. Upekkhā as a subject for meditation belongs to the Fifth Jhāna in the pañcaka method and to the Fourth Jhāna in the catukka method. The dull can meditate on upekkhā only when they have attained the Fourth Jhāna and the intelligent only after acquiring the first three Jhānas, by means of other samatha subjects. Because, as has been said, upekkhā is subtle, serene and noble and thus belongs to the highest Jhāna and not to the lower ones.

Mettā on the other hand belongs to the lower four or three Jhānas. This indicates the fact that upekkhā is superior to mettā. If upekkhā is not intended as a subject for meditation but intended as a Perfection to be fulfilled, it can be developed at any time.

Mahā Lomahaṃsa Cariya.

With regard to the Perfection of Equanimity, the story of the Bodhisatta's hair-raising, severe efforts in fulfilling Upekkhā Pāramī will be reproduced from the Cariyā Piṭaka Commentary.

Once the Boddhisatta was born in a family of wealth and rank. When the time came for his education he went to a well-known teacher. After completing it he returned to his parents to look after them. On their death, his relatives urged him to protect and increase the riches that he had inherited.

However, the Bodhisatta had developed fear of all realms of existence and his fear was based on the nature of impermanence of all conditioned things. He also had perceived the loathsomeness of the body and had no desire at all to be entangled in the thicket of defilements associated with household life. In fact, his desire to get out of the world of sensuality had long been growing. Accordingly he wanted to renounce the world after abandoning his great wealth. "But because of sounds of praise my renunciation will make me famous," he thought to [ 347 ] himself. Since he disliked fame, gain and honour shown to him, he did not renounce the world. In order to test himself whether he could unshakenly stand the vicissitude of life such as gaining and not gaining (wealth) etc., wearing the usual clothes he left the house. His special desire was to fulfil the highest form of Upekkhā Pāramī by enduring ill-treatment of others. Leading a noble life of austerities, he was thought by people to be a feebleminded eccentric, one who never showed anger to others. Regarded as a person to be treated not with respect but with impudence, he roamed about villages, towns, big and small, spending just one night at each place. But he stayed longer wherever he was shown the greatest insolence. When his clothes were worn out he tried to cover himself with whatever remnant was left. And when that piece was torn away he did not accept any garment from anybody but tried to cover himself with anything available and kept moving.

After living such a life for a long time, he arrived at a village. The village children there were of aggressive nature. Some kids belonging to widows and associates of ruling class were unsteady, conceited, fickle-minded, garrulous, indulging in loose talk. They wandered around, always playing practical jokes on others. When they saw aged and poor people walking, they followed them and threw ashes on their backs. They tried to place ketaki leaves under the old people's arm-pits (just to make them feel uncomfortable). When the old people turned round to look at them, they mimicked their movements and manners by bending their backs, curving their legs, pretending to be dumb etc., and had great fun laughing among themselves.

When the Bodhisatta saw the unruly children he thought, "Now I have found a good means of support for fulfilment of Perfection of Equanimity," and stayed in the village. Seeing him, the mischievous kids tried to make fun of him, who, pretending as though he could no longer endure them and as though he was afraid of them, ran away. Still the kids followed him wherever he went.

[ 348 ] The Bodhisatta on the run reached a cemetery and thought to himself, "This is a place where no one will prevent these mischievous youngsters from doing harm. I have now a chance to fulfil Upekkhā Pāramī to a great extent." He went into the cemetery and slept there using a skull as a pillow. Getting an opportunity to indulge in devilry, the foolish kids went where the Bodhisatta was sleeping and insulted him in various ways, spitting phlegm and saliva on him and doing other evil things and went away. In this way they ill-treated the Bodhisatta everyday.

Seeing these wrong acts done by the wicked children, some wise people stopped them doing. With the knowledge that "This indeed is a holy ascetic of great power", they all paid obeisance to him with utmost reverence.

The Bodhisatta kept the same attitude towards both the foolish kids and the wise people. He showed no affection to the latter who honoured him nor aversion to the former who insulted him. Instead he took a neutral stance between affection and aversion with regard to both parties. In this way, he fulfilled the Perfection of Equanimity.

(Though this story is called Mahā Lomahaṃsa Jātaka, the name Mahā Lomahaṃsa was not that of the Bodhisatta. It just refers to the affect on those who come to know of how the Bodhisatta had practised; the horrible story could make their hair stand on end; hence the story's name Mahā Lomahaṃsa).

Fulfilment of upekkhā.

Extinction of hate and love is fulfilment of upekkhā. (Upekkhā Pāramī signifies stilling of these two mental states. There is no Perfection of Equanimity unless both are calmed.)

In special affairs, staying in a negligent mood without taking interest in anything leads to the impairment of upekkhā. Such an attitude cannot be called upekkhā. It is only unawareness which is wrongly thought to be so.

[ 349 ] Real upekkhā is not indifference or unawareness. It sees both good and evil which lead to happiness and suffering respectively. But he who observes upekkhā reflects clearly: "I am not concerned with these matters of happiness and suffering; they are the results of their own good and evil deeds."

In the Netti Commentary it is stated: "Extreme absentmindedness appearing as indifference with regard to various sense-objects either good or bad is deceptive. (Delusion, moha, disguised as upekkhā is deceptive.) Reluctance to perform deeds of merit also tends to deceive by assuming the appearance of the sublime mode of doing upekkhā. (Indolence, kosajjha, for doing good deeds is also likely to pretend to be upekkhā.) Therefore one should take care of oneself not to be deceived by either delusion or indolence that is apt to behave like upekkhā.

Essence of upekkhā.

Upekkhā in ultimate sense is a separate entity. It is a mental concomitant (cetasika) called tatramajjhattatā (central position thereof). But all the mental concomitants of tatramajjhattatā cannot collectively be called Upekkhā Pāramī." Tatramajjhattatā is a mental concomitant that is associated with all sobhana cittas ('beautiful' consciousness); it accompanies each arising of sobhana citta. Tatramajjhattatā which can be regarded as genuine upekkhā Pāramī pays attention to beings and reflects: "Happiness and suffering of beings are conditioned by their kamma in which nobody can intervene. They have kamma as their own property and cause. "Tatramajjhattatā that arises out of contemplation not of beings but of the Three Gems, almsgiving and observance of the precepts cannot constitute Upekkhā Pāramī.

When equanimity is maintained contemplating happiness and suffering of beings, tatramajjhattatā does not arise alone but all associated consciousness and mental concomitants appear with it. Though the object of tatramajjhattatā and the object of its associates are one and the same, equanimity with regard to happiness and [ 350 ] suffering of beings is its main function. Therefore this tatramajjhattatā is designated Upekkhā Pāramī. Its associated consciousness and mental concomitants also come to be included in Upekkhā Pāramī; tatramajjhattatā plays the leading role and this is the only difference between it and its associates.

Ten kinds of upekkhā.

There are other kinds of upekkhā that cannot be included in Upekkhā Pāramī though each of them is an ultimate reality. The Visuddhi Magga and the Aṭṭhasālinī enumerate ten such upekkhā:

1. Chaḷaṅgupekkhā, 6. Vedanupekkhā,
2. Brahmavihārupekkhā, 7. Vipassanupekkhā,
3. Bojjhaṅgupekkhā, 8. Tatramajjhattupekkhā,
4. Vīriyupekkhā, 9. Jhānupekkhā, and
5. Saṅkhārupekkhā, 10. Pārisuddhupekkhā.

1. There are six sense-objects good and bad that appear at the six sense-doors. Arahants are not delighted when the sense-objects are desirable and not dejected when these are undesirable. Always being endowed with mindfulness and comprehension they take them in with equanimity, maintaining their natural purity of their mind. This kind of mental equipoise is called Chaḷangupekkhā. (That is, upekkhā with six factors, namely, six sense-doors and six-objects.)

2. Equanimity which views that happiness and suffering of beings occur according to their kamma is Brahmavihārupekkhā. (Equanimity with sublime living. Upekkhā Pāramī is this kind of Upekkhā.)

3. When efforts are made to attain the Path and the Fruition, if some factors are weak and other strong, the weaker ones are to be strengthened and the stronger are to be suppressed; but when these factors of the Path reached the status of Bojjhaṅgas, Constituents of Enlightenment, their associated factors are of equal strength. [ 351 ] Upekkhā observed equally on these elements is called Bojjhaṅgupekkhā.

4. In making efforts to attain the Path and the Fruition, energy extended for just the required amount, neither more nor less , is Vīriyupekkhā.

5. In making efforts for the attainment of concentration, Path and Fruition states, remaining detached from saṅkhāradhammas, conditioned things, such as nivaraṇas, hindrances, etc., that are to be eradicated by means of the First Jhāna etc., is called Saṅkhārupekkhā. (This Saṅkhārupekkhā arises when the Vipassanā wisdom matures. Before its maturity one needs making efforts to eradicate saṅkhāradhammas. But once the maturity is acquired it is no longer necessary to make special efforts to eradicate them. Only an attitude of indifference is needed for the purpose.)

6. Feeling experienced neutrally without delight or dejection when taking in a sense-object is Vedanupekhā.

7. Maintaining a mental equilibrium in developing insight into the nature of impermanence and other characteristics of the aggregates is called Vipassanupekkha. (A brief meaning of Vipassanā may be given here in this connection. Vi means 'special' and passanā 'seeing'; hence Vipassanā is 'Insight'. Perceiving that there are concrete things such as men, women and so on is an ordinary knowledge common to all. It is an understanding based on perception but not a special understanding based on profound wisdom. Vipassanā Insight is: "In reality there are no such things as 'I' or 'he'. What is termed 'I' or 'he' is just an aggregate of matter and mind that is subject to destruction and dissolution. These aggregates are continuously decaying without interruption. There is no sign of impairment only because every decaying object is being endlessly replaced by a newly conditioned thing.")

8. Upekkhā observed without making efforts to maintain neutrality on these correlated dhammas that are well balanced in their respective functions is called Tatramajjhattupekkhā.

[ 352 ] 9. In developing Jhānas, remaining indifferent to the sublime bliss that appears at the third Jhāna is called Jhānupekkhā. (It is the upekkhā that is acquired only at the final Jhāna.)

10. Being purified of all opposing factors and requiring no effort in pacifying them is called Pārisuddhupekkhā. (It is the equanimity at the Fourth Jhāna stage which is free of all opposing factors.)

Of these ten, the six, namely, Chaḷaṅgupekkhā. Brahmavihārupekkhā, Bojjhagṅupekkhā, Tatramajjhattupekkhā, Jhānupekkhā and Pārisuddhupekkhā, are the same in their ultimate sense. They are all Tatramajjhattatā cetasikas.

Why are they then enumerated as six kinds? Because they differ from one another in their time of arising. A simile is given in the above-quoted Commentaries to explain this point. A man in his childhood is called kumāra, 'boy'; when he becomes older he is called yuva, 'youth'; again when he becomes older he is called vuḍḍha, 'adult', senāpati, 'general', rāja, 'king' etc., A man is thus called differently according to the stages in his life.

To make it clearer: Their distinctions are due to the differences in their functions which are as follows:

(1) As has been stated before, to contemplate all six sense objects good and bad with equanimity is the Function of Chaḷaṅgupekkhā.
(2) To contemplate happiness and suffering of beings with equanimity is the function of Brahmavihārupekkhā.
(3) In striving to achieve the Jhānas, Path and Fruition states, to contemplate with equanimity the hindrances that are to be removed is the function of Bojjhaṅgupekkhā.
(4) To develop energy neither more nor less than what is required is the function of Vīriyaupekkhā.
(5) To contemplate with equanimity all correlated factors without encouraging or suppressing is the function of Safkhārupekkhā.
[ 353 ] (6) To contemplate sensations with equanimity is the function of Vedanupekkhā.
(7) To contemplate with equanimity the three characteristics (anicca, dukkha and anatta) is the function of Vipassanupekkhā.
(8) To contemplate with equanimity the associated factors which are well balanced is the function of Tatramajjhattatā.
(9) To contemplate with equanimity even the most sublime bliss of Jhānas is the function of Jhānupekkhā.
(10) To contemplate with equanimity which is purified of all opposing factors is the function of Pārisuddhupekkhā.

Thus not only the differences of functions but those of sense-objects should be noted. Vīriyupekkhā is vīriya cetasika and Vedanupekkhā is vedanā cetasika: these two upekkhās are quite separate from other cetasikas in terms of Dhamma. Saṅkhārupekkhā and Vipassanupekkhā are both Paññā cetasikas. But they have two different functions as · follows:

Contemplating without making special efforts the three characteristics of conditioned things (saṅkhāra) is Vipassanupekkhā; equanimity when contemplating without fear the conditioned things (saṅkhāra) is Saṅkhārupekkhā.

Upekkhā as a Perfection and the ten upekkhās.

The list of these ten upekkhās mentioned by the Commentators do not directly include Pāramī Upekkhā, Upekkhā as a Perfection. One might therefore be anxious to know: Is the exclusion due to the fact that upekkhā as a Perfection is not associated with any of the ten or is it an oversight on the part of the Commentators? It could not be said that the Commentators were so negligent as to leave it out from their list. It is to be taken that Pāramī Upekkhā is contained in Brahmavihārupekkhā.

[ 354 ] However, some are of the opinion that Brahmavihār upekkhā and Pāramī Upekkhā are two different things. According to them, taking up one and the same attitude towards one's foe and friend alike is Pāramī Upekkha; taking up one and the same attitude towards happiness and suffering of beings with the thought that these two conditions are the result of their own deeds is Brahmavihārupekkhā.

That is to say, Upekkhā Pāramī contemplating happiness and suffering of beings is not Pāramī Upekkhā but Brahmavihārupekkhā.

However, the nature of Upekkhā Pāramī is explained in the Buddhavaṃsa thus:

Tath'eva tvam pi sukhadukkhe
tulābhūto sadā bhava
upekkhāpāramitaṃ gantvā
sambodhiṃ pāpuṇissati.

In this verse, sukhadukkhe tulābhūto means 'in happiness and suffering, be like the scales of a balance.'

Thus contemplation of happiness and suffering is taught as the basis of Upekkhā Pāramī also in the Mahā Lomahaṃsa cariya of the Cariyā Piṭaka. It is said:

Ye me dukkhaṃ upadahanti
ye ca denti sukhaṃ mama
sabbesaṃ samako homi.

There also on the basis of those two stages in life, it is taught, "Some people do harm while others give comfort. My attitude towards all of them is the same;" Sukhadukkhe tulābhūto yasesu ayasesu ca "whether in happiness and suffering, or in fame and disgrace, I am like the scales of a balance."

In the Aṭṭhasālinī and the Pāṭha Jātaka Commentary mentioned above, explanations are given also on the basis [ 355 ] of those two mental states: happiness and suffering. "Though the village boys' ill-treatment (spitting of phlegm etc.) should normally cause suffering and the villagers' honouring him with flowers, scents etc., should normally cause happiness, the Bodhisatta viewed both with a balanced attitude of mind. The Bodhisatta's upekkhā that did not deviate from that balanced position was the supreme Perfection of Equanimity, Paramattha Upekkhā Pāramī."

Besides, when the Visuddhimagga and the Aṭṭhasālinī explain the characteristics etc., of Brahmavihārupekkhā it is said thus: Sattesu majjhattākāralakkhaṇā upekkhā, "upekkhā has the characteristics of viewing things with equanimity;" satta, 'beings', here is used as a general term; it means those who offend and those who show kindness towards oneself, or those who are happy and those who are suffering. Therefore taking up a neutral attitude towards one's foe and friend alike is clearly Brahmavihārupekkha. Therefore it clearly means also that Pāramī Upekkhā is included in Brahmavihārupekkhā.

Here ends the Section on the Perfection of Equanimity.

1. Three root-conditions: Tihetu-paṭisandhika-a being whose conciousness of the moment of rebirth is accompanied by three root-conditons of Greedlessness, Hatelessness, Undeludedness.

2. Upanissaya-Paccaya: life immediate support.

3. Parittas: lit. protection; it is a Buddhist custom to recite certain Suttas such as Maṅgala, Ratana, Metta, etc., to ward off evil influences.

4. According to I.B.Horner (The Book of the Discipline), food tickets were issued at times when food was scarce. But the story of Dārubbanḍaka suggests that the same is adopted also when food is abundant as a higher form of dāna.

5. Pāyāsi, a chieftain at Setavya in the kingdom of Kosala, was reborn in Catumahārājika as a result of his alms-giving in the human world. He related his past experiences to the visiting MahāThera Gavaṃpati. He said he had given alms without thorough preparation, not with his own hand, without due thought, as something discarded; hence his rebirth in that lowest of the six celestial planes. But Uttara, the young man who supervised his alms-giving at his request, was reborn in a higher abode- Tāvatiṃsa- because he gave with thorough preparation with his own hand, with due thought, not as something discarded. The story teaches the right way of alms-giving.

6. Parivāsa: a penalty for a Saṃghādisesa offence requiring him to live under suspension from association with the rest of the Saṃgha for as many days as he has knowingly concealed his offence. At the end of this Parivāsa observance he undergoes a further period of penance, mānatta.

7. Mānatta: a period of penance for six days to gain approbation of the Saṃgha, after which he requests the Saṃgha to reinstate him to full association with the rest of the Saṃgha.